Dr Andrew Drake

Aim. This study aims to examine the cardiovascular responses during an indoor race walking competition over the distance of 3-km for female and 5-km for male athletes. Methods. During the Italian indoor RW Championship heart rate was monitored on eleven well trained race walkers (five men and six women) and then refereed as percentages of individuals' theoretical maximum heart rate (206-0.7-age). To provide a measure of relative intensity, five HR zones were assessed. Alterations in % HRmax both for the five and three 1000-m split distances were determined. Results. During the 5-km race the athletes spent 79.7% (15 min 45 s) at HR5 (i.e., 90-100% of HRmax). Specifically, % HRmax increased by 10% in the last compared to the first 1000-m sector (P=0.006, effect size = 2.47±0.83, very large), with the first 1000-m sector lower than the subsequent ones (P=0.01, effect size=2.17 to 2.47, very large). While, for the 3-km the athletes spent 86.9% (11 min 35 s) at HR5 (i.e., 90-100% of HRmax) with no differences observed in the % HRmaxbetween the three 1000-m sectors (P>0.01). Conclusion. The dissemination of performance and physical attributes identified within the present study reveal that the exercise intensity of indoor race walking competitions has a high-intensity profile and will assist coaches and athletes in formulating appropriate training, competition and recovery.

The aim of this case study was to describe the physiological and regulatory processes, by means of heart rate (HR) monitoring and pacing strategy, in a top-level race walker (age: 32 years; height: 1.76 m; body mass: 62 kg; training volume: 130-150 km·wk

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An observational study on the perceptive and physiological variables during a 10,000-m race walking competition. J Strength Cond Res 26(10): 2741-2747, 2012-In this study, we observed the variations on physiological and perceptual variables during a self-paced 10,000-m race walking (RW) event with the aim to trace a preliminary performance profile of the distance. In 14 male athletes, the heart rate (HR) was monitored continuously throughout the event. The rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was collected using the Borg's 6-20 RPE scale placed at each 1,000 m of an outdoor tartan track. Pacing data were retrieved from the official race results and presented as percent change compared with the first split time. The athletes spent 95.4% at 90-100% of the HRpeak, whereas the other work (4.6%) was negligible. During the race, a shift toward higher HR values was observed because % HRpeak increased by 3.6% in the last vs. the first 1,000-m sector (p = 0.002, effect size [ES] = 1.55 ± 0.68, large). The mean RPE reported by the athletes in the last 1,000 m was significantly higher than in the first 5 sectors (p < 0.02, ES = 1.93-2.96, large to very large). The mean percent change increased between the first 6 sectors and the last 1,000-m sector (p < 0.01, ES = 1.02-2.1, moderate to very large). The analysis of walking velocity at each 1,000-m sector suggested the adoption of a negative pacing. In conclusion, the RPE may be a valid marker of exercise intensity even in real settings. Match physiological and perceptual data with work rate are required to understand race-related regulatory processes. Pacing should be considered as a conscious behavior decided by the athletes based on the internal feedback during the race. © 2012 National Strength and Conditioning Association.

Race walking is a technical event where coaches frequently use event-specific drills to develop their athletes’ strength and movement skills in training. The purpose of this study was to measure the effectiveness of six drills often used by race walkers because of their value in activating key muscles. The muscle activity of eight lower limb muscles was measured using electromyography in 10 young race walkers as they completed the six drills down a biomechanics runway. Two force plates were also used to measure contact times and flight times, and results were compared to the muscle activity recorded during normal (competition-paced) race walking. In general, the drills chosen for analysis achieved greater activation of the key muscles of the gluteus maximus, rectus femoris and vastus lateralis; however, they were not as beneficial with regard to the activity of biceps femoris and tibialis anterior, two muscles that are often injured in race walking. Coaches are advised to ensure that drills used in training are specific to their athletes’ needs and do not inadvertently lead to non-legal technique being adopted (e.g., through increased flight time).

The purpose of this study was to measure the effects of fatigue on gait parameters during race walking. Research has shown that fatigued athletes require gait alterations in order to maintain speed. Eighteen competitive race walkers walked either 5 km or 10 km at a pace equivalent to 105% of their season’s best time. Junior athletes walked 5 km, while senior athletes (mostly 20 km walkers) walked 10 km. Kinetic data were collected using a Gaitway treadmill (1000 Hz). Data were collected at three points during the 5 km walks and at four points during the 10 km walks. Repeated measures ANOVA showed that there were significant differences in impulse and contact time parameters (p < .01). The kinetic and temporal changes occurred as early as 1 km. Athletes are recommended to race at a constant pace to reduce the effects of fatigue.

Race walking is a complex activity that relies on considerable power generation by the muscles at the hip joint. Little is known, however, whether differences are present in terms of muscle activity patterns between men and women, or between younger and older athletes. The purpose of this study was to compare hip muscle activity patterns in elite male and female race walkers across U20 and senior age groups. Ten male and ten female race walkers participated, with five U20 and five senior athletes of each gender. The athletes were recorded using high-speed videography (100 Hz) as they race walked down a 40 m runway, during which the muscle activity of the gluteus medius, gluteus maximus, biceps femoris and rectus femoris was recorded using electromyography (EMG) (1000 Hz). The hip sagittal angle was calculated from digitised data, and average rectified EMG used to identify visual differences between groups. No differences were found using ANOVA between any groups for the activity of any of the four muscles analysed at toe-off, midswing, heel-strike and midstance, although there were visual differences in activity timings. Overall the few differences between groups showed that race walking techniques are comparable across trained athletes and coaches can adopt similar training practices when developing the muscular qualities of their athletes.

The purpose of this study was to measure and analyse ground reaction force variables during race walking. Fourteen national level race walkers, eight men and six women, walked at race pace over two force plates recording at 1000 Hz. Men and women had comparable force trace patterns except for the magnitude of the weight-loading peak force. There were similarities with normal ground reaction force patterns, although the drop in vertical force at midstance and subsequent rise in vertical push-off force typical of normal walking were not observed. This was considered to be due to the straightened knee rule of race walking and the need to reduce vertical displacment and flight time. The medial forces were greater than those in normal walking and this may be related to the frontal plane motions of the pelvis.

Prior research on the effects of fatigue during race walking has shown changes in step length and frequency (Knicker & Loch, 1990: New Studies in Athletics, 5, 25–38). It is unclear whether these changes are consistent for both legs. The purpose of the study was to investigate the differences between the legs for kinetic variables during race walking, and to measure changes occurring because of fatigue. The study was approved by the university’s ethics committee and informed consent was given by fourteen international race walkers, of whom four were females (age mean 28.2, s=7.4 years; stature 1.77, s=0.10 m; mass 66.0, s=11.7 kg). Each participant walked for 10 km on a treadmill (Gaitway, Traunstein). The average treadmill speed was 12.4 km h-1 (s=0.7) and each athlete walked at a constant pace. Data were recorded using the Gaitway treadmill, which has two in-dwelling force plates (Kistler, Winterthur). The sampling rate was 1000 Hz. Data were collected for 30 s at four times during the walk, at 2500 m, 4500 m, 6500 m and 8500 m. Statistical analysis consisted of repeated measures ANOVA. There was a significant difference between the legs for first peak force (F1,13=32.6, P¼0.001, Z2=0.71, power=0.99), weight acceptance rate (F1,13=14.5, P=.002, Z2=0.53, power=0.94), and push-off rate (F1,13=36.2, P=0.001, Z2=0.74, power=1), although these differences did not change significantly with distance walked. There was also a significant difference between the legs’ step lengths (F1,13=30.1, P=0.001, Z2=0.70, power=0.99), midsupport forces (F1,13=9.6, P=0.009, Z2=0.42, power=0.82), and propulsive force peaks (F1,13=20.6, P=0.001, Z2=0.61, power=0.99); the overall values for these variables also increased significantly with distance walked (P<0.001, P=0.009, and P<0.001 respectively). However, there was no effect of distance on the differences between the legs for any variable. The results show significant leg dominance during race walking. Athletes should be aware that these imbalances need rectification to prevent injury and maintain efficient walking technique. The imbalances did not appear to worsen with the onset of fatigue although this may occur over the longer championship distances of 20 and 50 km.

AIM: Successful coaching in race walking requires a thorough understanding of the biomechanical principles underlying this unique form of gait. The purpose of this study was to analyze elite male and female junior race walkers and identify key kinematic variables. METHODS: Twenty junior men and 20 junior women were videoed as they competed over 10 km in the 8th European Cup Race Walking. Three-dimensional kinematic data were obtained using motion analysis software (SIMI, Munich). RESULTS: Step length and cadence were correlated with speed in both sexes, and greater step lengths were the kinematic reason for junior men's faster walking speeds. While cadence did not differ between junior men and junior women, there was a difference in proportion of step time spent in contact. There were some differences between genders for upper body joint angles (e.g., elbow) but there were few differences within lower limb joint angles. CONCLUSION: Although some technical aspects (e.g., pelvic and shoulder girdle rotation) appeared undeveloped, it was noteworthy that most athletes achieved full knee extension at initial contact in accordance with the rules. However, in many athletes flight times were evident that might present problems during the transition to the higher standards of senior competition. There was a large range of ability among both sexes and coaches are advised to ensure that technical development continues during the transition to senior competition.

The aim of this study was to analyse the important kinematic variables in elite men's and women's 20 km race walking. Thirty men and 30 women were analysed from video data recorded during the World Race Walking Cup. Video data were also recorded at four points during the European Cup Race Walking and 12 men and 12 women analysed from these data. Two camcorders operating at 50 Hz recorded at each race for 3D analysis. The two main performance determinants of speed were step length and cadence. Men were faster than women because of their greater step lengths but there was no difference in cadence. A reduction in step length was the initial cause of slowing down with later decreases in speed caused by reductions in cadence. Shorter contact times were important in optimising both step length and cadence, and faster athletes tended to have longer flight times than slower athletes. It was less clear which other kinematic variables were critical for successful walking, particularly with regard to joint angles. Different associations were found for some key variables in men and women, suggesting that their techniques may differ due to differences in height and mass.

The purpose of this study was to compare knee muscle activity in race walkers with different knee extension patterns. Three international athletes walked over two force plates recording at 1000 Hz. Video data were simultaneously recorded at 100 Hz; the digitised data were combined with the force data to calculate net muscle moments and joint powers. EMG testing was carried out on three muscles which cross the knee. The two walkers with legal techniques had similar moment and power patterns, whereas the non-legal walker experienced a longer period of eccentric flexor moment at the beginning of stance, which may have affected his ability to extend his knee correctly. After this, all three athletes experienced a period of isometric contraction at the knee. Achieving correct technique requires both strength endurance exercises and mobility development.

The aim of this study was to measure and assess the biomechanical efficiency of elite race walkers. Thirty-six athletes were videoed at four different points during the 7th European Cup Race Walking. Twelve of these athletes competed in the men’s 20 km race, twelve in the women’s 20 km race, and twelve in the men’s 50 km race. Kinematic variables such as step length, pelvic rotation and knee angles were measured. Additionally, twenty-seven athletes (eighteen men and nine women) walked on a treadmill with in-built force plates in a laboratory setting. In this part of the study, variables of interest included impact force, propulsive force and base of support. Race walking utilised pelvic rotation and pelvic tilt much more than normal walking, due partially to fully straightened knees from contact to the vertical upright position. These pelvic movements also prevented the athletes’ centres of mass from rising too high. Force trace analysis showed that senior athletes had more efficient and typical race walking patterns than junior athletes, which may be an indicator of less training experience. Analysis of the effects of fatigue showed that important variables such as step length changed over the course of the walk. The 50 km men had knee contact angles that decreased significantly with fatigue and were therefore more likely to be disqualified in the later stages of the race.

The 23rd World Race Walking Cup was a very successful event with an excellent course, large numbers of spectators, and outstanding individual performances. The purpose of this study was to examine the walking techniques of the top finishers in the three senior races. Each race was videoed with two cameras placed at the side of the course where the athletes passed on every lap. Analysis of the top eight 20K women, top eight 50K men, and the 3rd to 10th place finishers in the men’s 20K was completed. The results showed that a balance between maintaining a long stride and a high cadence was crucial in achieving success. Because of the limitations of the specific race walking rules, the hip and ankle muscles must have the requisite power and endurance to develop and maintain high speeds. Men and women differ in the amount of rotation that occurs at the hips and shoulders. Men are able to attain longer strides by moving their hips through larger ranges of movement. In contrast to the joint angles of the legs, there was a large variation in the angles of the shoulders and elbows. It is advisable for athletes to concentrate on maintaining efficient technique in training and in competition.

The aim of this study was to measure and analyse the important kinematic variables in elite race walking. Research has shown that these key variables include step length, cadence, positions of the body segments and joint angles. Video recordings of eighty race walkers were taken during competition at the 7th European Cup Race Walking in 2007. These athletes included 50K men walkers as well as 20K men and women. The 20K men were faster than 50K men due to higher cadences, while both male groups were faster than women due to having longer steps. The fastest athletes overall had step lengths of approximately 70% of body height. Athletes with step lengths of this proportion were also able to maintain high cadences. 20K men had higher cadences due to longer flight times. Joint angles did not appear to be important to walking speed; instead it was the speed of movements at the joints that were important. Twelve competitors in each race were analysed at three other points in their race to assess any symptoms of fatigue. On average, all groups of athletes slowed down as the race progressed. In men, this was mostly due to shorter step lengths; in women, it was due to lower cadences. Nearly all athletes adhered to the straight leg rule of race walking but most had short, normally undetectable flight times. 50K men had knee contact angles which decreased significantly with fatigue; this leads to an increased risk of disqualification.

Race walking is an endurance event which also requires great technical ability, particularly with respect to its two distinguishing rules. The 50 km race walk is the longest event in the athletics programme at the Olympic Games. The aims of this observational study were to identify the important kinematic variables in elite men's 50 km race walking, and to measure variation in those variables at different distances. Thirty men were analysed from video data recorded during a World Race Walking Cup competition. Video data were also recorded at four distances during the European Cup Race Walking and 12 men analysed from these data. Two camcorders (50 Hz) recorded at each race for 3D analysis. The results of this study showed that walking speed was associated with both step length (r=0.54,P=0.002) and cadence (r=0.58,P=0.001). While placing the foot further ahead of the body at heel strike was associated with greater step lengths (r=0.45,P=0.013), it was also negatively associated with cadence (r= -0.62,P<0.001). In the World Cup, knee angles ranged between 175 and 186° at initial contact and between 180 and 195° at midstance. During the European Cup, walking speed decreased significantly (F=9.35,P=0.002), mostly due to a decrease in step length between 38.5 and 48.5 km (t=8.59,P=0.014). From this study, it would appear that the key areas a 50 km race walker must develop and coordinate are step length and cadence, although it is also important to ensure legal walking technique is maintained with the onset of fatigue.

The 3rd European Race Walking Conference took place at Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, England, from 11-13 November 2016. Organised by a team from one of Europe’s top hubs for race walking, the National Centre for Race Walking Foundation, with support from European Athletics, the conference attracted 59 participants from 10 nations. The programme reflected the current race walking environment with examples of good practice based on athlete-centred philosophies. It included keynote presentations from both the organises and guest speakers, workshops and a special in-depth roundtable discussion led by members of the athlete support team for Tom Bosworth (GBR) who placed 6th in the Men’s 20km Walk at the 2016 Olympic Games with a UK Record performance of 1:20:13. This report provides an overview of the conference by giving descriptions of the weekend’s sessions.

The purpose of this study was to measure and analyse the important angular kinematic variables in elite race walking. Research has shown that these variables include knee angle at contact and midstance, rotation of the hips and shoulders, and hip extension velocity. Eighty elite race walkers were videoed during competition and analysed using 3D-DLT with SIMI Motion. The knee angle was found to be almost straight at contact in most athletes and hyperextended by the vertical upright position. Athletes varied in the amount of rotation at the hips and shoulders, with 50 km men having greater hip rotation and 20 km women having greater shoulder rotation. There was much more variation in the values found for elbow and shoulder angles. Very few angular measurements correlated with key race walking variables such as speed, step length and cadence.

The purpose of this study was to measure kinetic variables during race walking. Forty national and international race walkers walked either 5 km or 10 km at a pace equivalent to 105% of their season’s best time. Junior athletes walked 5 km, while senior athletes (mostly 20 km walkers) walked 10 km. Kinetic data were collected using a Gaitway treadmill (1000 Hz). Data were collected at the 2.5 km point. Men had longer step lengths than women and walked faster as a result. There was little difference in cadence. Average flight times for each group of athlete were approximately 0.04 s. Senior athletes showed more ‘typical’ race walking vertical force patterns than the juniors; this may be linked to quantity of training experience and gait efficiency. Athletes are advised to develop muscular strength endurance to cope with loading rates upon initial contact.

Although race walkers are not permitted a visible flight phase, previous research has found that most competitors do experience very brief losses of contact. The purpose of this study was to assess the role of the flight phase in elite race walking. Seventeen international athletes race walked over two force plates recording at 1000 Hz. Video data were simultaneously recorded at 100 Hz and used to calculate kinematic variables such as step length. The mean flight time was 0.030 s (± .011) while the mean distance travelled during this phase was 0.12 m (± .05). It was calculated that without flight times, athletes would have slower mean velocities, particularly if mean cadence remained the same. However, the contribution of flight phases in race walking does not just allow for greater step lengths and faster speeds, but also more time for lower limb repositioning.

The purpose of this study was to examine the technique of elite junior race walkers competing at the 8th European Cup Race Walking. Both the junior men’s and junior women’s races were videoed with two cameras placed at the side of the course where the athletes passed on every lap. Analysis of twenty competitors in each race was completed. Both stride length and stride frequency were greater in the fastest groups of athletes. Stride length differences between left-to-right and right-to-left strides were noticeable in a number of athletes and these imbalances should be rectified to improve walking efficiency and reduce risk of injury. Flight times were short in the majority of athletes and slower athletes displayed no loss of contact. Athletes were also capable of maintaining straight knees from contact to the vertical upright position. However, many athletes appeared inefficient with regard to rotational motions, with poor pelvic rotation and ungainly arm movements. Junior athletes should spend time developing their technique in order to improve efficiency, reduce the risk of injury, and lessen the chance of disqualification. Training programmes to develop both muscular power and endurance are recommended to develop prepare junior athletes for the demands of senior level competitions.