Dr Rachael Aplin

This chapter explores the complexities of ‘public protection’, which is undoubtedly a specialist area of policing. It explores the ‘crisis’ occasioned by the decentralisation of public protection units within police forces, due to government budget cuts to services in England and Wales. Several chapters focus on harms against marginalised communities, notably honour based abuse, forced marriage and FGM and advise around sensitive policing whilst ensuring ‘race anxiety’ does not occasion under policing. The chapters of domestic abuse, rape and modern slavery, although specific to adults also impact child victims. The varied dimensions of child abuse and child protection are explored, notably child neglect, child sexual abuse, child sexual exploitation and the sudden unexplained deaths of children. The crime of forced marriage along with crimes against older people (cybercrime and doorstep crime) also include vulnerable adult abuse due to extant health conditions and/or disabilities. This chapter outlines the overarching contributions made within this edited collection. The concluding chapter identifies iterative themes across all author contributions. These expose problematic policing as well as elements of good practice. These facets are important to recognise in order to improve victim treatment and ensure public protection offences are thoroughly investigated and prosecuted.

This chapter identifies the similarities of HBA/FM with ‘traditional’ forms of domestic abuse, as well as delineating the distinctly cultural ‘specificities’ of these crimes. ‘Victim blaming’ is apparent, whereby perpetrating family members discredit and undermine accounts of child victims and those suffering poor mental health. ‘Accepting’ these explanations leads to inaction and under protection by police and social service practitioners. An area of improvement is to ensure these incidents are appropriately recorded as crimes in line with National Crime Recording Standards (NCRS). Moreover, the role of women in effecting and sanctioning such abuses, particularly mothers, is important to recognise to ensure safeguarding can be effective. To support practitioners in effective decision making, warning signs indicating the onset of HBA/FM will be explained, such as girls becoming sexually active or children being “too westernised”. The interconnectedness of HBA and FM will be explored, along with the distinction between ‘forced’ and arranged’ marriage. Due to the uneven power relations and higher status enjoyed by men, HBA remains undoubtedly a highly gendered crime affecting women and girls. However, this chapter additionally underlines the impact of crimes on vulnerable and marginalised groups, notably LGBTQ communities, children and vulnerable adults with learning or physical disabilities.

(edited collection)

Distraction Burglary and Rogue Trader fraud are crimes involving the systematic and disproportionate repeat victimisation of older people on their ‘doorstep’ and inside their homes. This chapter delineates the distinctions and overlaps between such ‘artifice’ crimes. Under reporting and under recording of these incidents as ‘crimes’ is prevalent in which some officers breach National Crime Recording Standards (NCRS). Narrative scripts include promoting the perception these crimes are “civil disputes”, as well as suggesting perpetrators are bona fide ‘legitimate’ tradespersons. The competency of the victim is also questioned where seemingly ‘confused’ burglary victims “consent” to perpetrators entering their home. Another iterative theme is of no property being stolen, which is often combined with an assertion that no offender(s) entered the property, thereby negating the ‘trespass’. Such scripts are utilised by officers to deconstruct and decriminalise the crime event, thereby justifying a ‘no crime’ decision and no requirement for further investigation. Although rogue trader is equally traumatic for victims, as well as more financially lucrative for perpetrators, fraud is treated as a lesser crime and deemed a low policing priority; which is a surprise given that fraud constitutes 41% of all recorded crime in England and Wales (House of Commons, 2023).

The purpose of this collection has been to provide a theoretical and evidence-based understanding of victimology, as well as grasp the diverse field, legislation, procedures and practices within the remit of public protection.

This research explores police discretionary practices associated with circumventing crime recording rules, utilising doorstep crimes against elderly victims as the context. This mixed method study involved documentary examination of 68 cases from classified police systems, a focus group with CEnTSA trading standards officers and police questionnaires from 26 England and Wales Force Intelligence Branches (FIB). Findings reveal that almost half the doorstep incidents were filed at source with no investigation. Some officers deconstruct “crime” utilising the power of language within their skilfully crafted summary ‘write ups’. In justifying their dubious ‘no crime’ decisions, officers rely on identifiable ‘scripts’ that are reminiscent of the work of Shearing and Ericson (1991). A central script is that of ‘civil dispute’ which ‘legitimises’ the fraudster as entering into a contract with elderly victims “no matter how unscrupulous that contract may be”. Attendant officers deny property being stolen, suggest that elderly victims “consent” to offender entry and even resort to the alleged unreliability or ‘confusion’ of elderly victims, despite this feature signifying a need for ‘enhanced’ safeguarding. Findings expose ‘cuffing’ to be an enduring and dysfunctional police practice, effected out of self preference and pragmatism in order to suppress and ration their own workload.

Chapter one: Introducing honour-based abuse pp. 1-34. HBA is introduced as a gendered crime with the control of female sexuality as central. As the study hinges on police discretionary practices, organisational culture(s), socialisation, discretion and storytelling are explored. Whether a monolithic police culture exists is compared against more fluid interpretations of police culture(s). The challenges of policing HBA are outlined. Cultural aspects distinguish HBA from other ‘domestics’, presenting additional barriers that impede victims from reporting and prosecuting the abuse. Notably, this is a Muslim-on-Muslim crime; minorities fear racist attitudes from professionals; female perpetration and multiple perpetration features; honour codes exacerbate difficulties for victims; perpetrators are ascribed a heroic status. Despite cultural nuances, HBA shares resounding similarities with other forms of violence and should remain within the domestic abuse framework. Honour and shame; Culture; Policing; Organisational culture(s); Discretion; Domestic abuse. Chapter two: Methodology pp.35-53. This chapter outlines the philosophical approach taken in this research which is pragmatically oriented and focuses on symbolic interactionism. The application of mixed methods is explored, which involved examining 100 police classified HBA electronic case records (and associated data) authenticated against 15 semi structured interviews with predominantly detective specialist officers. Mid sections outline the qualifying criteria and broad demographic of the expert purposive sample of participants involved in the study. The benefits and limitations of both methods are explored, as is the rationale for examining incident records rather than crime reports. Latter sections reflect on the key ethical considerations; the use of grounded theory as a means of analysis and the positionality of the researcher as an ex detective sergeant of twenty years. Symbolic interactionism; Documentary analysis; Semi-structured interviews; Grounded theory; Positionality. Chapter three: Distinguishing truth from lies: Victims are mad, bad or consenting pp.55-100. This chapter establishes those at heightened risks of HBA and the triggers which precipitate the crime. It distillates the extent to which professionals are influenced by perpetrator narratives. The obscure arena of vulnerable adult abuse is examined and how professionals sometimes deny vulnerability, attributing ‘freewill’ and consent to those lacking capacity. Conversely, the poor mental health of HBA victims is exaggerated by perpetrators, with illogical explanations sometimes left unchallenged by professionals. Findings expose goal displacement and the medicalising of victims. Labels are traded, with perpetrators depicted as reasonable and acting in the “best interests” of victims. Conversely teenage girls are portrayed as precipitating problems due to their perceived ‘wayward’ behaviour. Whether officers can distinguish “genuine” from “non-genuine” victims and ‘truth’ from ‘lies’ is critically assessed. Vulnerable victims; Policing honour-based abuse; Mental illness; Victim blaming; False allegations. Chapter four: The grey figure of crime: If it isn’t crimed, it hasn’t happened pp.101-152. Aplin highlights that ‘cuffing’ crimes is an enduring discretionary police practice. 69% of HBA cases (and 89% of incidents over three years) are not recorded as crimes, despite evidence of criminal offences. In justifying no-crime decisions, officers rely on perceived legalities and formal rules, such as the NCRS requirement for ‘victim confirmation’ of crimes, as well as bias and subjective judgement. Performance target pressures and pre-empting CPS no-charge decisions are also explored. Overwhelmingly, findings illustrate that victim reluctance adversely impacts officer’s no-crime decisions. Manufacturing victim reluctance is effective in validating police inaction and in officers circumventing perceived ‘wasted workload’. If it is not crimed, it has technically “not happened”, which abrogates officers of responsibilities around investigation, prosecution and safeguarding. Policing honour-based abuse; Crime recording; threats to kill; performance targets; manufactured victim reluctance. Chapter five: Deconstructing crime through language pp.153-197. This chapter illustrates dissembling through the craft of language in the incident summary write-up, in which some officers construct an alternative ‘paper’ reality that bears little resemblance to HBA victim narratives. Numerous patterned police practices are identified, such altering the ‘crime’ by removing key words; presenting information in formulaic compressed closed question format; using language to distort and trivialise the report. Sin by omission is also a prevalent discretionary practice, as 71% of DASH risk assessments contain incomplete or missing data. Furthermore, the ‘family dispute’ theme and the unwillingness of victims in disclosing offences replicate traditional domestic abuse explanations. Such stratagems dilute or entirely negate the risks to victims, stifle legitimate lines of enquiry, decriminalise cases and wrongly justify officers no-crime decisions. Policing honour-based abuse; Deconstructing crime through language; Sin by omission; DASH risk assessments; interpreters. Chapter six: Female perpetration of honour-based abuse pp.199-250. This chapter explores the dimensions of abuse inflicted by women, specifically mothers, mothers-in-law and sisters. Abuse is categorised into six themes: Violence; violence due to pregnancy; hard and soft psychological abuse; ostracism of victims; women being complicit and turning a “blind eye” to violence. Aplin establishes that mothers play a fundamental role in HBA perpetration. Despite violent acts by women being uncommon, mothers inflict 71.5% (10/14) of the acts of violence. A third of specialist police officers (5/15) had never investigated female perpetrators. Findings show officers failing to record female perpetration in 12% of cases. The extent to which women act under duress or are willing participants in abusing other women is examined. The chapter reconsiders whether professionals should automatically trust mothers to safeguard children. Female perpetration of HBA; Mothers; Violence and forced abortion; Duress; Police under-recording; Child safeguarding. Chapter seven: HBA Child Protection and Partnership working pp. 251-298. This chapter assesses the efficacy of professional interventions (predominantly police and Children’s social care) when HBA against children is reported. CSC employ mediation, working agreements and section 20 voluntary arrangements. Moreover, officials attest to making decisions out of deference to victim’s wishes and suggest that perpetrators cooperate with advice imparted during mediation. Yet, these stratagems serve to justify professional decision-making. The impact is that children’s wishes are often overridden; the care system is circumvented; victims are retained with abusers and internal organisational demands are prioritised above children’s best interests. Consequently, despite 64% (14/22) of children being put in police protection (PPP), CSC retained/returned children to risk in 73% of cases (16/22). The cost of care and extant workloads affect the selective preferences of some professionals. Child protection; Mediation; Child reconciliation by Children’s social care; Partnership working; Cost of care. Chapter eight: Conclusions pp.299-327. This chapter presents conclusions and recommendations to improve HBA policing practices. Police officers do not reflect one monolithic police culture, with classic depictions failing to reflect the complex interactions between victims, perpetrators and professionals. Dominant factors in decision-making revolve around whether the victim was perceived as blameworthy, reluctant to prosecute or whether professionals mistrusted victims as ‘non-genuine’. Many of the patterned discretionary practices were functional strategies and centralised on unscrupulous officers providing rationale to decriminalise incidents and support their ‘no-crime’ decisions, which included ‘accepting’ the narratives advanced by perpetrators. The most salient trait was the pragmatism of some officers in their preoccupation with personal workload reduction. The impact left victims, including children and vulnerable adults, exposed to secondary victimisation; under-policed, under-protected and with unmet needs. Discretionary police practices; Deconstructing crime; Pragmatism of officers; Personal workload reduction.

Despite the introduction of three routes into policing which necessitate a degree qualification (DHEP, PCDA and DPP); at the insistence of the National Police Chiefs Council (NPCC) the College of Policing have introduced a fourth route (PCEP), to be launched April 2024. This fourth route means officers no longer need a degree, which is divisive and contradicts the professionalisation agenda. There remains uncertainty about the ability of Police Forces and Higher Education to manage the tripartite relationship. Although Further and Higher Educators from ‘academics’ to ‘pracademics’ provide multiple benefits for policing students, the landscape remains turbulent. This entry questions whose knowledge ‘counts’ in police legal education and the challenges associated with professionalising the service.

The research examines responses by police and adult social care to Honour Based Abuse (HBA) victims that have a diagnosed or perceived vulnerability; such as a physical disability or mental health issue. The purpose is to improve professional practice in ensuring vulnerable victims are safeguarded. Findings are drawn from 100 HBA investigations (2012-2014) derived from classified police electronic records and interviews with fifteen, predominantly specialist, public protection police officers in one UK force. HBA against vulnerable adults is an obscure crime area. In cases of diagnosed vulnerability (3%), police officers wrongly attributed ‘free will’ and choice to vulnerable adults that legally lacked the capacity to consent to marriage. Conversely, in 9% of cases where victims were depressed and/or self-harming, perpetrators exaggerated the poor mental health of victims in order to discredit them to law enforcement. Professionals illogically latched onto perpetrator explanations and in turn undermined and problematised the victims. There is limited access to data on vulnerable adult abuse, making this an under researched area of crime. Failing to undertake risk assessments, or record whether the victim is legally vulnerable should lead to a review of police practice. An evaluation of joint working arrangements is necessary concerning which agency (police or Adult Social Care) should take primacy. Vulnerable adult victims were retained in risk predicaments alongside perpetrating family members. Police officers suggesting vulnerable adults can "consent" to marriage is a new concept, along with issues of goal displacement which illustrates avoidance behaviours by professionals and under protection by the state.

Despite the introduction of three routes into policing which necessitate a degree qualification (DHEP, PCDA and DPP); at the insistence of the National Police Chiefs Council (NPCC) the College of Policing have introduced a fourth route (PCEP), to be launched April 2024. This fourth route means officers no longer need a degree, which is divisive and contradicts the professionalisation agenda. There remains uncertainty about the ability of Police Forces and Higher Education to manage the tripartite relationship. Although Further and Higher Educators from 'academics' to 'pracademics' provide multiple benefits for policing students, the landscape remains turbulent. This entry questions whose knowledge 'counts' in police legal education and the challenges associated with professionalising the service.

This article intends to illuminate the role played by mothers within ‘honour’ based abuse (HBA) crime, an issue that is both obscured and under researched. Findings are drawn from 100 HBA investigations (2012–2014) and fifteen semi structured interviews (2016) with specialist police officers in one UK police force. The findings show that mothers play fundamental, indeed “massive” role in perpetrating honour abuse against daughters. Mothers inflict violence, sometimes with an intention to induce an abortion; they inflict hard psychological abuse and condone the violence inflicted by other male relatives, mainly sons. This article challenges the ability for mothers to effectively safeguard child victims of HBA. Police under recording of female perpetration is apparent. Victim loyalty and reluctance to prosecute mothers contributes to the blurred of boundaries between mothers as ‘perpetrators’ and mothers as secondary ‘victims’ acting under duress. Such factors adversely affect the policing response.

KEY EVENTS On November 24, 2022, Dr Rachael Aplin, Senior Lecturer of Policing at York St. John University, presented Independent Advisory Groups (IAG): Managing the Divide Between Communities and Police in Knowledge Sharing and Understanding. The presentation was followed by a question-and-answer period with questions from the audience and CASIS-Vancouver executives. The key points discussed were the value and role of IAGs, the key issues identified and addressed, and the challenges and benefits that the groups present.

Despite the introduction of three routes into policing which necessitate a degree qualification (DHEP, PCDA and DPP); at the insistence of the National Police Chiefs Council (NPCC) the College of Policing have introduced a fourth route (PCEP), to be launched April 2024. This fourth route means officers no longer need a degree, which is divisive and contradicts the professionalisation agenda. There remains uncertainty about the ability of Police Forces and Higher Education to manage the tripartite relationship. Although Further and Higher Educators from ‘academics’ to ‘pracademics’ provide multiple benefits for policing students, the landscape remains turbulent. This entry questions whose knowledge ‘counts’ in police legal education and the challenges associated with professionalising the service.

This article examines focus group responses from an England Police Force Independent Advisory Group (IAG). It explores the role played by IAG members in advising police on cultural matters associated with Honour Based Abuse (HBA), Forced Marriage (FM) and Female Genital Mutilation (FGM). Findings illustrate that IAG members, largely ethnic minority female in composition, possess a wealth of knowledge, skills, and experience. They adeptly scrutinise officer decision-making, provide useful case management interventions and challenge the dominant narrative. They propose that statutory services inadvertently perpetuate racial stereotypes by tokenistic use of ethnic minority professionals. IAGs expose that health professionals hold vital information about FGM adult victims, which under current UK guidance they are not obligated to disclose. IAGs are an untapped operational resource, capable of supporting professionals (and thereby victims) within Multi Agency Risk Assessment Conferences. Documenting of IAG decisions is necessary to evaluate their consistency, value, and long term impact.

This article considers the benefits, limitations and potential impacts of ‘ethic matching’ South Asian (SA) police officers to victims, or conversely allocating ‘different’ non-SA officers to reported honour-based abuse (HBA) cases and other crimes. To explore these themes, semi-structured interviews in one English police force with 15 police specialist detectives in Public Protection took place. Lack of cultural competence by some non-SA officers was evident, exposing stereotyping and tokenism. Some professional race anxiety features, but to a lesser extent. Cultural ignorance impacts an officer’s ability to identify crime patterns; results in misconstruing victim perspectives and means that officers may not recognise cues that victims are at risk. The opposing perspective identifies that there are enormous benefits to ‘ethnic matching’ SA officers and victims when investigating crimes, notably enhanced insight due to cultural competence, excellent victim rapport and the use of foreign language skills. Conversely, findings indicate that in exceptional circumstances cultural bias by some same ethnicity officers can act as an impediment, influencing officer decision-making and detrimentally affecting victims’ best interests. Extant literature reinforces the contention that victims do not want to be ‘ethnic matched’ to the police or other professionals, for fear that officials may leak information to the wider community. Albeit there are notable benefits to ethnic matching, factors such as training and experience are equally important. Nevertheless, the article affords valuable insights into the strengths and limitations of ethnic matching and ethnic difference, which will aid operational supervisory police officers when resourcing such incidents.

This Rogue Trader fraud study examines questionnaire data from 26 England and Wales police force intelligence branches (FIB) and trading standards focus group data. Findings highlight police disinclination to investigate and prosecute rogue trader ‘fraud’ due to its low priority; the complexity of level two criminality and stretched police resources, all exacerbated by poor application of the Fraud Act 2006. Placing artifice crimes on separate NPCC portfolios reduces the scope to identify patterns in crime series offending, fragmenting the intelligence picture. Whilst this crime lacks an enforcement arm and straddles trading standards and police remits, rogue trader remains ‘nobody’s problem’.

This article explores police discretionary practices associated with circumventing crime recording rules (NCRS), utilising doorstep crimes against elderly victims as the crime context (distraction burglary, fraud and attempts). This research examines 68 ‘rogue trader’ incidents from classified police systems, a focus group with CEnTSA trading standards officers and 31 police questionnaires from 26 England and Wales Force Intelligence Branches (FIB) and regional/national intelligence units. Almost half the doorstep incidents were filed at source with no investigation and 44% (30/68) of incidents breached National Crime Recording Standards (NCRS). It is argued that some officers deconstruct ‘crime’ utilising the power of language within their skilfully crafted summary ‘write up’. In justifying their dubious ‘no crime’ decisions, officers rely on identifiable ‘scripts’ that are reminiscent of the work of Shearing and Ericson (1991). A central script is that of ‘civil dispute’ which ‘legitimises’ the fraudster as entering into a contract with elderly victims ‘no matter how unscrupulous that contract may be’. Attendant officers deny property being stolen, suggest that elderly victims ‘consent’ to offender entry and even resort to the alleged unreliability or ‘confusion’ of elderly victims, despite this feature signifying a need for ‘enhanced’ safeguarding; all of which preclude officers from submitting crime reports. Findings expose ‘cuffing’ to be an enduring and dysfunctional police practice, effected out of self preference and pragmatism in order to ration workload. Such detrimental outcomes expose older people to repeat victimisation, under-policing and secondary victimisation by the state.

The purpose of this collection has been to provide a theoretical and evidence-based understanding of victimology, as well as grasp the diverse field, legislation, procedures and practices within the remit of public protection. The chapters have explored the psychology and barriers around why ‘disclosures’ are difficult for victims; why some remain in denial, or present as guarded or ‘challenging’. We must remain curious and sensitive to the needs of victims-but crucially as practitioners we must listen and respond.

This chapter explores the complexities of ‘public protection’, which is undoubtedly a specialist area of policing. It explores the ‘crisis’ occasioned by the decentralisation of public protection units within police forces, due to government budget cuts to services in England and Wales. Several chapters focus on harms against marginalised communities, notably honour-based abuse, forced marriage and FGM; and advise around sensitive policing whilst ensuring ‘race anxiety’ does not occasion under policing. The chapters on domestic abuse, rape and modern slavery, although specific to adults also impact child victims. The varied dimensions of child abuse and child protection are explored, notably child neglect, child sexual abuse, child sexual exploitation and the sudden unexplained deaths of children. The crime of forced marriage along with crimes against older people (cybercrime and doorstep crime) also include vulnerable adult abuse due to extant health conditions and/or disabilities. This chapter outlines the overarching contributions made within this edited collection. The concluding chapter identifies iterative themes across all author contributions. These expose problematic policing as well as elements of good practice. These facets are important to recognise in order to improve victim treatment and ensure public protection offences are thoroughly investigated and prosecuted.

This article reviews qualification routes linked to Higher Education (HE) for Police Officers in England and Wales. The work analyses open source data (2019-2024). Findings identify few standardised data sources. Those declaring a relationship with a HE provider fell significantly by a fifth, whilst across the timeframe over half the declaring police forces (28/41) changed their HE provider. PPD courses declined by a fifth (21-17). Comparably, PCDA courses doubled across the period. This article offers commentary on the potential drivers behind changes and summarises the benefits and challenges in HE and police force collaboration in the provision of police education.

This chapter explores the complexities of ‘public protection’, which is undoubtedly a specialist area of policing. It explores the ‘crisis’ occasioned by the decentralisation of public protection units within police forces, due to government budget cuts to services in England and Wales. Several chapters focus on harms against marginalised communities, notably honour-based abuse, forced marriage and FGM; and advise around sensitive policing whilst ensuring ‘race anxiety’ does not occasion under policing. The chapters on domestic abuse, rape and modern slavery, although specific to adults also impact child victims. The varied dimensions of child abuse and child protection are explored, notably child neglect, child sexual abuse, child sexual exploitation and the sudden unexplained deaths of children. The crime of forced marriage along with crimes against older people (cybercrime and doorstep crime) also include vulnerable adult abuse due to extant health conditions and/or disabilities. This chapter outlines the overarching contributions made within this edited collection. The concluding chapter identifies iterative themes across all author contributions. These expose problematic policing as well as elements of good practice. These facets are important to recognise in order to improve victim treatment and ensure public protection offences are thoroughly investigated and prosecuted.