Professor Akintola Akintoye

In the process industries, alarm systems are used to notify operators and other plant personnel of abnormal process conditions or equipment malfunctions. The alarm system helps operators operate the process safely under normal and abnormal conditions and the alarm system needs to be designed correctly to ensure safe and efficient operation. Alarms play a significant role in maintaining plant safety. They are a means of risk reduction which help prevent harm from process hazards. One of the key requirements in safety instrumented system and alarm management design that is too often given little attention is the process safety time and the expected operator response time to an alarm. As part of the work process for safety design in Amec Foster Wheeler, a methodology has been developed for calculation and specifying the Process Safety Time (PST) of an alarm. The PST is used to determine the alarm operator response time (one of the criteria required during the identification stage of an alarm lifecycle). It is also used in the calculation of the Safety Instrument Function (SIF) response time as required by IEC 61511 in the preparation of Safety Requirement Specification (SRS) during the functional safety lifecycle. This paper investigates the role of time in the design of alarm and SIF and it also defines the connection between the process and time using PST as well as describes a methodology used in determining the PST. The method is based on using a dynamic simulation tool to simulate the process behaviour to detect unsafe situations and to support the calculation of the process safety time. The paper highlights how the PST is used in the process alarm identification and rationalisation stages of the alarm lifecycle to ensure the number of alarms of a process unit displayed to an operator are manageable and relevant.

© 2017 The Gulf Organisation for Research and Development The overarching objective of social housing is to meet housing needs, particularly those of the vulnerable households – low and middle income earners. However, there is evidence to show that social housing is not adequately supported to achieve sustainable goals despite its significance for addressing the housing crisis. The aim of this study is to determine the Critical Success Factors (CSFs) for achieving Sustainable Social Housing (SSH) from economic, environmental and social perspectives for meeting housing needs. The document content analysis approach involving relevant literature resources was used for generating the success factors (SFs) for achieving SSH. Findings from this approach were refined before using them in preparing a questionnaire used to gather data from housing authorities (public) and private non-profit social housing organisations in England and they were asked to rank the criticality level of the identified success factors. The data gathered through the relevant documents and respondents were analysed respectively with NVivo and Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). Findings revealed some of the CSFs for achieving SSH for meeting housing needs as: adequate funding and provision, affordability, efficient economic planning, appropriate construction technology, environmental protection, use of environmental friendly materials, effective land use planning, appropriate design, security of lives and property, provision of social services and ensuring social cohesion. The paper recommends the use of efficient sustainable development (SD) strategies and legal and institutional frameworks for monitoring and evaluating the delivery of SSH. The Government must embark on effective housing programmes for ensuring adequate provision of social housing that is sustainable for meeting housing needs in the short and long-run. There is need for the Government to regularly provide financial supports to social housing providers and users for addressing the housing crisis.

For the construction industry to survive the current turbulence in the economic atmosphere, it has the option of integrating new initiatives to march the uncertainties. Programme management is seen as an efficient vehicle to successfully deliver the improvements and changes. However, the implementation of any new system or change initiatives has always been a challenging task; some of these challenges can be faced during the implementation or at practice stage. Programme management is not exempt from such challenges, in order to successfully implement and practice programme management, the knowledge of the major challenges associated to effective implementation and practice should not be left to serendipity or sagacity. Due to the lack of clarity surrounding programme management in the construction industry, the understanding of these major challenges remains vague. To provide a deeper insight into the major challenges to implementation and practice of construction programme management, this paper conducts both a pragmatic and theoretical study by triangulating literature, industrial questionnaire survey and semi-structured interviews. The research was conducted in the UK construction industry and other programme management sectors to analyse and exploit the knowledge of these challenges for effective implementation and practice of construction programmes. A total of 119 usable questionnaires were received and 17 semi-structured interviews were conducted, analysed and synthesised to provide a broader view on the major challenges and how to effectively implement and practice construction programmes. © 2009 Elsevier Ltd and IPMA.

The combination of the economic pressures, maturity and limitations of project management and the dynamic nature of the construction industry clients' requirements has triggered the need for the adoption and implementation of programme management as a de facto means of aligning, coordinating and managing a portfolio of construction projects to deliver benefits that would not be achievable if the projects were managed independently. Despite the benefits achievable in the practice of programme management, the awareness and understanding of its practice in the construction industry remains vague as a result of a lack of clarity and inconsistencies associated with its definitions. To fully understand the core essence of programme management, it is imperative that its quintessential definition, practice and context are clearly understood and documented. This research is based on a pragmatic synthesis of literature review and industrial questionnaire survey which establishes the relationship, similarities and differences between programme management and project management and subsequently draws comparisons of the practices relevant to programmes between programme and non-programme organisations. The research further highlights the implications of unawareness and lack of understanding that can affect the effective implementation and practice of programme management in the UK construction environment. © 2009 Elsevier Ltd and IPMA.

This paper documents the risk management practice of a utility company for its Recovery Plan project to address the risks of power interruptions due to a shortfall of supply and increasing electricity demand. The company's corporate risk management process and its practice at divisional and project levels are discussed. The key role of stakeholders in risk identification, analysis, mitigation, monitoring and reporting is emphasised by the company and this drives its risk management practice. Despite the level of resources available within the company to use more sophisticated risk management tools, the company adopts simple risk management methods suggesting that a large size company does not necessarily use 'state of the art' risk management techniques. Recommendations for improved practice are made. © 2007 Elsevier Ltd and IPMA.

Public Private Partnership/Private Finance Initiative (PPP/PFI) market has become popular for the public sector service delivery after a decade of its introduction into the UK construction industry. Its position in the industry is well rooted and substantial in size, yet the structure, nature of competition and the market orientations are little-known. This paper analyses the current PPP/PFI market structure in the UK construction industry especially its market concentration using concentration ratio method, a widely used industrial organization tool in analyzing market competitions. The capital values of all PPP/PFI projects, which involved construction activities, were used to analyse the market concentration; and the market leaders have been identified; competition among them and the top markets have been investigated. The result shows the nature of competition within the PPP/PFI market hugely differs within the sub-sectors (health, education, etc) but almost all of them fall into medium concentration or Oligopoly except education sector where competition among the firms is fierce. Top firms have their own speciality markets but most competition is within the top three sub-sectors; transport, health and education.

Many construction industry leaders agree that falling workload, government spending cuts, sustainability issues, increasing energy and resources costs, and decreased capital availability, pose profound strategic challenges for the construction industry in the UK and beyond. However, desperate need for infrastructure development has increased demand for the UK construction industry. The UK water-related infrastructure sector is projected to attract investment worth £4.5bn per annum over the next ten years. Therefore, this sector will become vital to the construction industry over the next decade or so. It is, therefore important to explore the key opportunities available for the UK construction industry in the water-related infrastructure development. This paper is based on review and synthesis of literature, presents the outlook of the UK water industry, key characteristics of the water-related infrastructure, opportunities for the construction industry in the water-related infrastructure and water-related infrastructure procurement methods. It is concluded that it is inevitable that the UK construction industry will see reduced workload arising from the recession and capital spending cuts. However, the need to spend on infrastructure creates opportunities for the industry. The construction industry needs to step forward and develop solutions with the public sector and create new physical infrastructure procurement models that will underpin mutual goals.

This paper describes the derivation of macro construction contract price models that are based on the economic theory of demand and supply using OLS multiple regression analysis. A structural equation model is presented which offers a structural explanation of the movements in the construction tender price index. Leading indicators of contract prices (in real terms) produced by the structural equations were unemployment level, real interest rate, manufacturing profitability, number of registered construction firms, building cost index, construction productivity and construction work stoppages. The equation produced an adjusted R

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Design and build has increased in its use for construction procurement in recent times. However, its performance as a procurement method has been widely criticized by professionals in the construction industry. This paper reports a survey of 40 architects, using a structured questionnaire to investigate the performance of contractor‐led design and build in project procurement. Although 20% of architects' private sector workload (and 8% of public sector) is derived from D&B, they perceive this procurement type to involve sacrificing product quality and design innovation. Where clients insist on a choice of D&B, architects generally prefer the use of either novation D&B or develop and construct, rather than ‘traditional’ D&B.

The volume of construction orders obtained by construction contractors determines the pace of total work done by contractors. In essence, new orders lead to construction output spread over a period of time. The operation of the construction industry shows that the construction order at time t would continue to filter into the output of the industry in the subsequent periods. This paper estimates and analyses the construction output-order relationships for both private and public sector construction works. There is a significant difference in the initial impact of new order on output in the private (19%) and public sectors (50/;,). The new order in the public sector takes a longer period (1 1 quarters) to filter completely into the public sector construction output whereas it takes substantially less time to filter completely (eight quarters) in the private sector. The shapes of the distributed lags are quite different for each of the sectors and these are explained by the attitudes of construction contractors to each of the sectors and the peculiar nature of the sectors themselves. © 1995, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. All rights reserved.

This paper describes three analyses to examine differences in construction company POT profitability between (1) different financial years and (2) different sizes of companies. In the first analysis, the aggregated profitability of a sample of 80 UK general contractors was found not to differ significantly from 3.23 % for each year of the period examined. The size (turnover) of companies, however, was significantly and positively correlated with profitability. The second analysis, of a sub-sample of eight very large companies, showed that profitability enhancement was associated with diversification into house building and other related activities. The third analysis, of 110 speculative house builders, showed profit margins to be around four times those of general contractors but uncorrelated with company size. Systematic changes were found, however, over the period involved. In all cases, the variability of profitability between companies was found to reduce with company size, implying a greater consistency in the financial performance of larger companies. © 1991, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. All rights reserved.

Although extensive research has been undertaken on factors influencing the decision to tender and mark-up and tender price determination for construction projects, very little of this research contains information appropriate to the factors involved in costing construction projects. The object of this study was to gain an understanding of the factors influencing contractors' cost estimating practice. This was achieved through a comparative study of eighty-four UK contractors classified into four categories, namely, very small, small, medium and large firms. The initial analysis of the 24 factors considered in the study shows that the main factors relevant to cost estimating practice are complexity of the project, scale and scope of construction, market conditions, method of construction, site constraints, client's financial position, buildability and location of the project. Analysis of variance, which tests the null hypothesis that the opinions of the four categories of companies are not significantly different, shows that except for the procurement route and contractual arrangement factor there is no difference of opinion, at the 5% significance level, on the factors influencing cost estimating. Further analysis, based on a factor analysis technique, shows that the variables could be grouped into seven factors; the most important factor grouping being project complexity followed by technological requirements, project information, project team requirement, contract requirement, project duration and, finally, market requirement. © 2000 Taylor & Francis Ltd.

Design and build (D & B) has become a popular mode of procuring construction work. A total of 52 construction firms responsible for 25% of UK construction output for 1991 were surveyed using a structured questionnaire to investigate their current views on this procurement route. The Novation D & B is widely used although not favoured by contractors. The contractors would like consultants to continue to provide them with concept design and specification and would rather support the develop and construct technique. ‘Design and manage’ and ‘design, manage and construct’ are not attractive to clients and resented by contractors. The usage of D & B on private sector projects is 21% of work-load from this sector compared to 12% from public sector. © 1994, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. All rights reserved.

Project governance (PG) represents a direct and control function for a project based organization (PBO). Operational approaches to PG have rarely been explored and structured. Based on a face-to-face questionnaire survey of project management professionals in China, this study produces an ontology of PG “direct and control” measures at the operational level. Mean value analysis confirms positive agreement among the research data and exploratory factor analysis indicates that four control subsystems predominate: normative management control; belief system; incentive mechanism; and risk governance. Confirmatory factor analysis validates these findings. Results serve as a foundation for future development of an operationally oriented PG model.

This paper uses a number of quantitative methods to assess the accuracy of the UK construction tender price index forecast (TPI) produced by experts for the Building Cost Information Service (BCIS) from 1980 to 1992. The test of comparative predictive accuracy shows that the BCIS forecast is less accurate than forecasts based upon a simple (naive) model which is widely regarded as the benchmark of satisfactory predictive performance. The study shows that the BCIS forecast contains systematic error which can be reduced with the use of optimal linear correction. The paper, apart from assessing the forecasting error of construction price movement, is normative in nature, producing aids for assessing forecast accuracy of the construction industry time series data. © 1995, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. All rights reserved.

Construction management education has expanded rapidly in recent years. However, there does not appear to be a coherent approach to the delivery of the course. Taught postgraduate degrees in construction management have become popular in UK with not less than 25 Universities currently offering programmes. An evaluation of courses in 15 UK universities shows that the delivery modes for programmes vary widely. It can be argued that the perspective of the practitioners must play a part in the shaping of construction management programmes. This paper presents the results of the UK construction management practitioners' perception on the delivery of construction management programme. This is a follow up to the paper on a survey of the content of postgraduate taught courses in construction management in UK [1].

This chapter contains section titled: Introduction Concept and Characteristics of PPP Features of PPP Benefits of PPP PPP Models PPP in Europe PPP in the UK PPP in the USA PPP in Asia‐Pacific PPP in Eastern Europe PPP in Africa Conclusions Introduction Concept and Characteristics of PPP Features of PPP Benefits of PPP PPP Models PPP in Europe PPP in the UK PPP in the USA PPP in Asia‐Pacific PPP in Eastern Europe PPP in Africa Conclusions

This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction Construction Procurement and the Procurement Cycle Procurement Strategies Conventional Procurement Methods Collaborative Procurement or Innovation Procurement Methods Conclusion Introduction Construction Procurement and the Procurement Cycle Procurement Strategies Conventional Procurement Methods Collaborative Procurement or Innovation Procurement Methods Conclusion

In all human endeavours from the design and production of new projects to implementing policies, organisations usually face major challenges which can put the entire enterprise to a test, or even force the initiators to rethink the feasibility of their strategies. These challenges can emerge as strategic, tactical or operational. These challenges may originate from human resources, political, commercial, societal, economical, or even technical aspects of the organisation. Programme management is not exempt from such challenges. A mass migration from project to programme management is imminent in the construction industry, yet there is still no clarity in what challenges lie ahead. To exploit the benefits of successful implementation and practice of construction programme management, a critical understanding of the major challenges is essential. A successful programme management can only be achieved if the major challenges are far less than the anticipated benefits. The findings of this research were achieved through pragmatic triangulation of literature review in programme management, an industrial questionnaire survey and semi-structured interviews with programme management experts. A total of 119 usable questionnaires were received from the construction industry and analysed, and 17 semi-structured interviews were conducted with experts to increase the depth and breadth of knowledge in construction programme management. This paper is based on an ongoing doctoral research into the implementation and practice of programme management in the UK construction industry. The paper synthesised the findings of the triangulation and provides a critical insight into the major challenges to the implication and practice, and the way forward to successful construction programme management. © RICS.

The results are documented of an investigation into current cost estimating practices of contractors for construction projects. A questionnaire survey of contractors was undertaken, in which the respondents are classified into four groups based on their turnover namely: very small, small, medium and large firms. The survey indicates that contractors, irrespective of size, continue to undertake cost estimating predominantly for construction planning purposes, including the preparation of tenders and cost control of projects during the execution stage and, to a lesser extent, for construction project evaluation. Recent developments in cost estimating methods and tools that consider risks and variability in cost estimates, such as the use of range estimating and parametric estimating techniques, have not been adopted by contractors. The practice of cost estimating does not differ from conventional techniques based on the use of labour and material constants to obtain prices for bills of quantities items on an item by item basis. The study shows that the major causes of inaccuracy in cost estimating continue to be the lack of practical knowledge of the construction process by those responsible for the estimating function, insufficient time to prepare cost estimates, poor tender documentation and the wide variability of subcontractors' prices. © 2000 Taylor & Francis Ltd.

The paper details the results of a questionnaire survey of supply chain collaboration and management in the top the UK construction industry contractors. The results indicate the formation of a significant number of partnerships/ collaborative agreements between contractors, suppliers and clients following the publication of the Latham (1994) and Egan (1997) reports. It appears that construction supply chain management (SCM) is still at its infancy but some awareness of the philosophy is evident. Contractors identified improved production planning and purchasing as key targets for the application of SCM in construction. Barriers to success included: workplace culture, lack of senior management commitment, inappropriate support structures and a lack of knowledge of SCM philosophy. Training and education at all levels in the industry are necessary to overcome these barriers. © 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

An understanding of future trends in construction prices is likely to influence the construction investment strategy of a variety of interested parties, ranging from private and public clients to construction contractors, property speculators, financial institutions, and construction professionals. This paper derives leading indicators for construction prices in the United Kingdom. These indicators are based on two experimental methods: turning points of the basic indicators in relation to construction price turning points; and predictive power of lags of the basic indicators. It is concluded, based on the analyses, that unemployment level, construction output, industrial production, and ratio of price to cost indices in manufacturing are consistent leading indicators of construction prices. Building cost index and gross national product constitute coincident indicators. 'Popular' macro-economic time series such as nominal interest rate, inflation rate, real interest rate, all share index and money supply produced inconclusive results.

Partnering is increasingly being used on construction projects. Partnering involves the parties to a construction project working together in an environment of trust and openness to realize the project efficiently and without conflict. Using a UK-wide postal questionnaire survey, the opinions of different types of organization - consultants, contractors, and clients were assessed in relation to the success factors and benefits of partnering. The study shows that UK contractors and clients are more positive about partnering than consultants. The research also indicates that certain requirements must be met if partnering is to succeed. In particular, trust, communication, commitment, a clear understanding of roles, consistency and a flexible attitude are necessary. It is recognized that nothing will change without considerable effort from all parties. Respondents believe that partnering can bring significant benefits, including fewer adversarial relationships and increased end-customer satisfaction, to the construction industry if all parties involved in a project strive for its success.

Based on the Engle-Granger (1987) methodology for cointegration and error correction mechanism models the paper examines causal relationships between the UK construction workload and price. The model tests the intuitive belief that the construction price (tender price index) is a long run determinant of construction workload (new orders) and that the relationship is constantly correcting itself back on to this long run path. The results suggest that there is a relationship between the variables but a very weak one.

Quantity surveyors are the hub of construction cost control in Nigeria. A total of 29 quantity surveying firms were surveyed using a structured questionnaire, augmented with formal interviews, with a view to determine the sources of, and how, cost information are managed in the country. An analysis of contractors’ tenders is the cheapest, fastest and most frequently used source of cost data. More reliable sources, such as market surveys and the technical press, are referred to less often. Greatest constraints identified against adequate management of construction cost information are with respect to insufficient design information, unavailability of relevant database and fluctuating construction input prices. © 1992, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. All rights reserved.

An analysis is made of private sector construction demand (quarterly new orders) grouped into housing, commercial and industrial construction, respectively and their relationship with a priori selected leading indicators of GNP, price level, real interest rate, unemployment and manufacturing profitability over the period 1974-1988. The results indicate that different variables explain the trends in these private sector construction demand subsectors. While construction price appeared to be an important elastic influence in housing investment, it was not found to be an important factor with respect to commercial and industrial construction. Trends in commercial and industrial constructions are explained by manufacturing profitability and economic conditions. The level of unemployment influences commercial construction only and with a negative inelastic relationship. Lead indicator forecasts of the groupings of private sector investment are above 10% accuracy due to the unusually deep cut in private construction as a result of the recession although the models expect increasing trends in these series. The implication of this level of accuracy is the need to investigate further variables for inclusion in the models to track the cut in private sectorial construction demand. This work is currently being undertaken at the University of Salford through the financial support of the Science and Engineering Research Council. © 1994, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. All rights reserved.

Materials constitute a huge proportion of the cost of construction. Materials are sometimes ordered weeks or even months ahead of requirement leading to uneconomical inventory on construction sites or contractors’ warehouses. Building material inventory represents cost to procure, cost to store and insure, cost to guard against theft and cost incurred when inventory becomes obsolete. This paper presents an overview of the Just-in-Time (JIT) production system and discusses application and implementation issues for the control of material inventory in building construction. JIT ensures that suppliers deliver directly to the production floor to achieve either a reduction in inventory or zero inventory and consequently a reduction in production costs. Implementation of JIT building material management in construction has the potential to realize the same far reaching benefits experienced in manufacturing. Relevant factors to consider in JIT implementation for material inventory management in construction are implications for construction output and quantities, production planning, design planning, construction contractor and suppliers’ relationships, material sourcing, and education and training. © 1995, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. All rights reserved.

The paper describes, on the basis of a questionnaire survey of general contractors and project management practices, the construction industry's perception of risk associated with its activities and the extent to which the industry uses risk analysis and management techniques. It concludes that risk management is essential to construction activities in minimizing losses and enhancing profitability. Construction risk is generally perceived as events that influence project objectives of cost, time and quality. Risk analysis and management in construction depend mainly on intuition, judgement and experience. Formal risk analysis and management techniques are rarely used due to a lack of knowledge and to doubts on the suitability of these techniques for construction industry activities. Copyright © 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd and IPMA.

This chapter contains section titled: Introduction OGC Gateways for PFI Risk Management Framework for ‘Project Risk Analysis and Management’ (PRAM) Application of the PFI Projects Risk Assessment Framework Conclusion Acknowledgements References Introduction OGC Gateways for PFI Risk Management Framework for ‘Project Risk Analysis and Management’ (PRAM) Application of the PFI Projects Risk Assessment Framework Conclusion Acknowledgements References

Public Private Partnership is a key issue in the construction industry - causing much concern among contractors, funders and facility managers. Demand has been building for a thorough analysis This edited book will familiarise both researchers and construction professionals working with public private partnerships (PPP) with the issues involved in the planning, implementation and day-to-day management of public private projects. It will show how current risk management methods can help the complex process of managing procurement via such partnerships. The chapters - most authored by a practitioner/academic partnership - are organised round the concepts of best value and use the findings of a major research project investigating Risk Assessment and Management in Private Finance Initiative Projects. The analysis of this research will be supplemented with contributions by leading international experts from Hong Kong, Australia and Singapore, covering hospitals, schools, waste management and housing - to exemplify best practice in PPP-based procurement.

Organisations which have used partnering for construction projects are now reporting favourable results, including decreased costs, quality improvement and delivery of project to programme. This paper presents trends in the usage of partnering and risks associated with partnering based on a questionnaire survey of construction clients, contractors and consultants. The paper reviews risks faced by the construction industry from the use of the partnering procurement method. The study reveals an increase in the use of partnering since the Latham report was published. Also, there has been a shift in its use from the post contract stage of construction to the design stage of project development. Since most projects’ costs are committed at the design stage, it is reckoned that this shift would assist the partners to make a significant contribution to the achievement of project objectives. Factor analysis of the risks involved in partnering shows that these are dominated by operational risks, and it is reckoned that these could constitute a barrier to the successful adoption of this procurement method in construction. Cost risks are not considered important in the use of partnering procurement method.

This timely new book provides an international perspective on Public Private Partnerships. Through 21 case studies, it investigates the existing and fast developing body of principles and practices from a wide range of countries and is the first book to bring together leading international academics and practitioners under a common framework that enables convenient cross-country comparisons. The authors focus on the impact of the financial crisis has had on how governments have reviewed and overhauled their PPP policies as they have examined or tested new ways of partnering more effectively, efficiently and sustainably with the private sector. Readers will be able to gauge the level of maturity of PPP development in the books case studies, understand similarities and differences in their practices, and gain useful insights into the regulatory framework and institutional infrastructure in place to support implementation of PPP. Finally, the book offers insights into the future challenges and opportunities that PPP offers stakeholders.

The Private Finance Initiative (PFI) and Best Value policies were introduced by the UK government as part of a drive to improve public service provision. Both Best Value and PFI focus on harmonising the interaction between the public and private sectors in the context of public private partnerships. Based on 68 interviews with representatives of the main stakeholder groups involved in PFI procurement and development in Great Britain, this paper analyses practitioner views on the problems encountered in implementing these schemes. In this context, it is noted that there is considerable disagreement with regard to the sources of, and solutions for, current difficulties. Amongst public sector respondents, there is a view that PFI procurement has to be standardised further in order to become more cost effective, and to allow for easier manageability. Private sector respondents, meanwhile, emphasise the need for clients to adopt a commercial ethos and to acquire a greater degree of expertise with regard to managing market-based solutions. Both views are indicative of an ongoing uncertainty amongst PFI stakeholders with regard to the levels of risk identification and management that are required for the successful implementation of PFI projects.

The renegotiation of road projects has been an important issue that has generated concerns in PPP procurement over the last decade. This has had serious policy implications for public procurement policy across countries because of its implications for the achievement of the objectives defined at the inception of PPP road contracts. This paper assesses the renegotiation of Public-Private Partnership (PPP) infrastructure projects in order to identify the issues involved in renegotiation and its outcomes. Data were collected through a literature review of selected studies on PPP infrastructure projects on a sectoral basis with particular emphasis on Latin America, Portugal and Spain. It was revealed that a high proportion of PPP contracts in the transport sector are renegotiated: Indeed, in the transport sector, more PPP road projects are renegotiated than other forms of transport projects. The main factors surrounding the renegotiation of road contracts are: lack of an adequate contract design, frequent opportunistic behaviour on the part of both public and private partners during the implementation of PPP road projects, changes in the conditions affecting revenue and costs beyond the reasonable assumptions accounted for in the original contract, corruption, and political and economic instability, all of which in most instances reduce the chance of the public partner achieving its objective of value for money (VfM). The paper concludes with a discussion of the need to develop a framework for integrating considerations of value for money into the renegotiation process of PPP road contracts.

Output specifications form an integral part of tendering documents for PPP projects. The document defines what the output-based requirements of clients are and also covers issues such as physical asset, facilities, level of service, change, performance criteria linking payment mechanism and risk allocation. Producing an effective Output specification is an art of defining the end without specifying the means. Well designed and structured Output specifications not only provide an opportunity to bidder/contractor to offer innovative and cost effective solution to the client but can also minimize future conflicts arising from Public Private Partnership contracts. Value for money can only be achieved with precise development and implementation of Output specifications. The aim of this paper is firstly to examine the issues related to client?s requirements, building of physical asset, service requirements, links to payment mechanism and risk allocation under an analytical framework. Secondly, the element of change has to be properly addressed in this long term partnership and issues related to flexibility in introducing changes and facilitating the renegotiations process will be examined.

Procurement plays a key role in sustainability as policies and practices need to extend beyond organisations’ boundaries to incorporate their whole supply chains. There is, however, a paucity of empirical research on sustainable forms of procurement initiatives currently being implemented in the UK construction sector to improve competitiveness – which is the core driver of this paper. In order to achieve this aim, a mixed research methodological approach was adopted to collect and analyse data. The findings are based primarily on quantitative data obtained from 53 completed postal questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with 17 professionals from 12 UK construction organisations. As revealed by this study, sustainable procurement is becoming increasingly important in the UK construction sector. The paper concludes that the process of integrating sustainable procurement initiatives into existing business models is often a complex issue. Therefore, there is an urgent need to explore the drivers and impediments associated with the successful integration of sustainable procurement initiatives into existing construction business models. It is also suggested that there is a need for cross-sector collaboration to capture and share best and worst practices relating to sustainable procurement strategies.

Developing countries face the challenge of maintaining economic growth and socio-economic development, at the core of which sits the construction industry. Considerable research on construction in developing countries took place in the 1970's and 1980's, but little since, a gap which this book fills. Including contributions from prominent academics and practitioners in Australia, China, the Netherlands, Portugal, Singapore, South Africa, Switzerland, and the UK, this is a truly international analysis of a subject of global interest. The most insightful and relevant of recent research on topics such as Millennium Development Goals, the informal construction sector, human resource development, technology, finance and social change, are all addressed in the context of the construction industry in the developing world. Also considered are other key aspects of construction industry development such as institution building, nurturing of contractors and consultants and championing of industry development programmes. While the challenge has grown and the needs have become even more pressing, the research to date has rarely presented effective solutions. Focussing on those aspects of the construction industry most crucial to development, this is a much needed up-to-date study that sheds new light on a variety of concepts and issues. This is essential reading for researchers, professionals and students interested in the construction industry in developing countries. Readers of this book will be interested in its companion volume; Contemporary Issues of Construction in Developing Countries.

©Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Purpose – Construction projects within Malaysia are plagued by time overruns that can transform what should have been successful projects, into those incurring additional costs, disagreements, litigation and in some cases abandonment. To help better understand this problem, the purpose of this paper is to investigate Malaysian project characteristics in relation to time overruns. Design/methodology/approach – In total, 150 Malaysian quantity-surveying organisations provided data relating to recent projects they have worked on. Project characteristics considered in analysis are new build and refurbishment, public and private sectors, procurement methods used, nature of projects and tendering methods. Findings – Public sector projects were found more prone to overruns than those in the private sector; refurbishment projects experienced better time performance than new build; construction management demonstrated better time performance than design-build or traditional procurement; and infrastructure projects/negotiated tendering, performed better than selective/open tendering, respectively. The study also developed a linear model to predict project duration, based on contract period. Research limitations/implications – The study adds a geographically specific detailed analysis to the extant literature of project performance generally and to that of time overruns more specifically. Practical implications – Findings provide stakeholders with information that may help mitigate the frequency of project delays among construction projects, especially in Malaysia. Originality/value – The analysis and modelling of time overrun in relation to Malaysian project characteristics in this way is novel.

This book examines some of the key policy, financial and managerial aspects of public-private partnerships within the context of the global spread of this form of procurement. The chapters investigate political and institutional issues surrounding PPPs, together with the financial and managerial strategies employed by the private sector. Adopting a cross-disciplinary perspective, the book highlights the often politically sensitive nature of these projects and identifies a need for the private sector to investigate a broad set of parameters which relate to the particular political economy of individual partnerships. Policy, Finance & Management for Public-Private Partnerships covers a range of specific issues, including: partnerships in developing countries; innovation in partnership-based procurement; government and business interaction; institutional and organisational approaches to facilitating partnership; project and corporate financing; risk and value management; market analysis, modelling and forecasting; capital structure decisions and management; investment theory and practice; pricing and cost evaluation; statutory regulations and their financial implications; option pricing; financial monitoring; syndicate funding; new roles for the financial and insurance sectors; institutional and multilateral funding; payment mechanisms; concession period determination; risk analysis and management; whole life value methodology; cost comparators and best value; team building, team work and skill development. Contributions from Australia, Europe, the Far East, South Africa and the United States together present the current thinking and state-of-the-art approaches to public-private partnerships. © 2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

An opinion survey of South African architects, quantity surveyors, engineers and contractors regarding ethical behaviour within the construction industry reveals that South African contractors seem to possess a reputation for unethical conduct. The range of problems encountered includes collusion, bribery, negligence, fraud, dishonesty and unfair practices. While bribery in the form of payments and gifts is prevalent, fraud does not appear to be as serious a problem. Most construction professionals believe that the industry suffers from unfair tendering practices, as well as over-claiming and/or withholding payment for service delivery. Negligence arises mainly from poor documentation and poor workmanship. Incidents of collusive tendering encompass cover pricing and bid cutting by contractors, while the primary form of fraudulent behaviour is deceit and misinformation. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's bribery codes conditions could be used to counter unethical behaviour in the construction industry.

Professional codes of conduct have developed to reflect the parameters of normative behaviour within which members of the professions should operate. The professional responsibilities and obligations of members toward their peers, their clients and the general public are usually delineated within these codes of conduct. An overview of business and professional ethics within construction is provided and the ethical issues facing South African construction professions are summarized. Specifically, this paper addresses ethical issues with regard to the breach of professional responsibilities and obligations to clients and the general public, as evidenced from a questionnaire survey of architects, contractors, quantity surveyors and consulting engineers. The survey findings indicate that, notwithstanding noticeable breaches, the professions take their responsibilities and obligations seriously, and regard a balance between their obligations to clients and the general public as paramount. Breaches in professional responsibilities include conflicts of interest and the divulging of confidential and proprietary information to a third party; both professionals and clients are guilty of such breaches.

Principles for managing stakeholders are discussed in the context of UK construction practice. The number of stakeholders in a modern construction project can be large, presenting numerous interfaces that have to be managed. Meanwhile, each organization has its own characteristic disposition. Therefore, the interactions between diverse organizations in a project pose a high potential for conflicting stakes. Against this background, stakeholder management assumes high priority. Qualitative research was used to investigate the practice of stakeholder management with 12 UK companies in the construction sector. Interviews were held with these companies and content analysis was used to identify themes that demonstrate effective stakeholder management practice. Construct validity and a workshop underpinned the verification of underlying and frontline approaches for managing stakeholders. The underlying approaches include maintaining existing relationships, providing top-level support and being proactive while the frontline approaches include the use of negotiations, trade-offs, incentives and concessions.

'I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good' (Adam Smith, 1776) This paper reports the results of a pilot survey of the opinions of architects, quantity surveyors, engineers and contractors regarding professional ethics within the South African construction industry. Data were gathered using a mail questionnaire sent to 16 architects, 17 quantity surveyors, 15 engineers, and 15 construction managers. The survey was conducted in the Western Cape region of South Africa, the intention being to expand the research to cover all provinces in South Africa at a later stage. The purpose of the research project was to establish the nature and extent of ethical standards in the construction industry in the Western Cape, and to determine the views on ethics by members of the construction team. More specifically, the issues of collusion, bribery, negligence, fraud and dishonesty, and unfair practices, as examples of unethical behaviour, are examined. It is concluded that various forms of unethical behaviour are practised in the South African construction industry, including collusion, bribery, negligence, and fraud. Moreover, it was determined that different professional groupings appear to have differing standards of ethical behaviour.

Innovation in construction is essential for growth. The industry strives to remain competitive using a variety of approaches and needs to engage structured initiatives linked to proven innovation concepts, techniques and applications. Even in mature markets like the Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) sector, where business behaviour is generally considered as being risk averse, it is increasingly important to embed innovation into mainstream business practices. In Construction Innovation and Process Improvement a number of wide ranging issues from construction practice in different countries with different contexts are presented to provide a rich collection of literature embracing theory and practice. Chapters are divided into three broad themes of construction innovation relating to: Theory and Practice; Process Drivers; and Future Technologies. Several questions are posed, including for example: What is particularly unique about construction innovation in theory and practice? What are the major drivers of construction innovation? What factors are needed to support and deliver future construction technologies? In attempting to respond to such questions, the book sheds new light on these challenges, and provides readers with a number of ways forward, especially cognisant of the increased role of globalisation, the enhanced impact of knowledge, and importance of innovation. All these can have a significant impact on strategic decision-making, competitive advantage, and sustainable policies and practices. Part One deals with change management, technology, sustainable construction, and supply chain management; Part Two addresses innovation and process improvement drivers, including strategic management, concurrent engineering, risk management, innovative procurement, knowledge management; Part Three explores future technologies in construction - and particularly, how these can be harnessed and leveraged to help procure innovation and process improvement. © 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

It is generally recognised that the UK construction industry is associated with low profit, delay in payments, cash flow concerns, insolvency, and short-term relationships compared with the other industries. In particular, claims and disputes have proliferated in the construction industry due, largely, to unfair payment practices. Therefore, to allow swift and a cheaper method of resolving construction disputes by way of adjudication, the 'Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996' (HGCRA) was introduced in the UK. The Act, however, has its strengths and weaknesses. To ensure the Act is more effective in achieving its intended objective, amendments have been proposed. This Paper will present the existing HGCRA 1996 Act, along with the "new" 2009 Construction Act. The Paper, based on literature review and online questionnaire survey, will discuss the level of awareness on the new Act, the perception of the UK industry on the abolition of 'contracts in writing' rule, and the key reasons for amending the HGCRA 1996 Act. The Paper concludes that the new Act is percieved as being more effective at improving cash flow in the construction supply chain and is expected to encourage parties to resolve disputes by adjudication. However, the process of integrating the proposed changes into existing dispute resolution processes is often a complex issue.

This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction An Overview of Public‐Private Partnerships PPP: Developed Economies PPP: Developing Economies PPP: Analysis of Private Sector Participation Discussion Conclusions Introduction An Overview of Public‐Private Partnerships PPP: Developed Economies PPP: Developing Economies PPP: Analysis of Private Sector Participation Discussion Conclusions

This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction Innovation in Construction Construction Innovation: Theory and Practice Construction Innovation: Process Drivers Construction Innovation: Future Technologies Conclusion Introduction Innovation in Construction Construction Innovation: Theory and Practice Construction Innovation: Process Drivers Construction Innovation: Future Technologies Conclusion

© 2017 The Authors. Despite several mitigation attempts, Nigeria is still facing a deficit of 17 million houses. Seminal literature argues that this problem is predominantly due to a myriad of issues, including high construction costs, skills shortages, the slow pace of construction, lack of infrastructure and logistics, poor quality of available housing stock etc. Given these issues, offsite manufacturing has been proffered as an innovative method for addressing these challenges. This paper reports on the findings of a substantial literature review investigated the needs, promises and barriers of adopting offsite manufacturing in Nigeria. Seminal literature elaborating on offsite construction and Nigerian construction industry has been thoroughly reviewed and results were analysed using thematic analysis, and Nvivo software was used to code and analyse the research data. Findings highlighted that the housing deficit in Nigeria is on the increase and nothing significant was being done at the moment. The results also posited that although OSM could improve housing delivery efforts in Nigeria, the prevalence of this is still considerably low; and that this was influenced by many factors, such as negative local perception about OSM, client resistance, lack of infrastructure and skills shortage. This study concludes that for OSM to be adopted in Nigeria, there is a need for greater awareness, collaboration, training and encouragement from Government. This study presents additional understanding of OSM in Nigeria based on expert opinion, the results of which were used to develop a framework for the effective adoption of OSM in Nigeria. It is concluded that the adoption of OSM could help support housing delivery efforts in Nigeria, and leverage wider benefits to the industry and associated supply chain.

Contractors have to bid competitively for most of their work and at the same time deal with the risks and uncertainties connected with bid submission. This article examines the factors involved in tender pricing and how they interrelate. From this, a conceptual model of contractors' pricing strategy is developed. © 1992.

The Private Finance Initiative (PFI) is a recent development in the UK in which private sector organisations, design, build, finance and operate assets to deliver a service to public sector clients. The initiative is expected to bring the private sector's finance, management skills and expertise into projects which would normally be undertaken by the public sector. Equivalents of this initiative, also found outside the UK, include DBFO (Design Build Finance Operate), BOO (Build Own Operate) and turnkey projects. Two important considerations for a project to receive an approval for the initiative are that it must represent value for money and there must be sufficient transfer of risk to the private sector. This paper, based on a questionnaire survey, provided the perceptions of clients, contractors and financial institutions on risk associated with PFI and how these determine their approach to PFI schemes. The analysis shows that design changes and the level of information on functional, performance and output requirements for PFI schemes are of major concern to the parties involved in this procurement route.

The construction industry drives economic growth and development in Malaysia, but unfortunately, its projects often suffer from cost overruns (that is, negative cost variance such that final project cost exceeds contract sum). This can lead to conflict and litigation, or in the extreme, projects may even be abandoned. To better understand this phenomenon, a questionnaire survey of Malaysian quantity-surveying consultants was undertaken to obtain project characteristics and cost performance data, in relation to a sample of 359 recently completed construction projects. Data were analysed in terms of project financial outturn based on: contract values; project sector; type of project; procurement route; nature of projects; and tendering method used. The findings offer stakeholders descriptive statistical cost performance information in relation to these characteristics. These statistics will support first-order project management decision-making within Malaysia particularly; and internationally more generally, with a view to helping minimise project cost variance in the future.

The wherewithal of achieving best value in private finance initiative (PFI) projects and the associated problems therein are documented. In the UK, PFI has offered a solution to the problem of securing necessary investment at a time of severe public expenditure restraint. In PFI schemes, the public sector clients must secure value for money, while the private sector service providers must genuinely assume responsibility for project risks. A broad-based investigation into PFI risk management informs the discussion in this paper. It is based on 68 interviews with PFI participants and a case study of eight PFI projects. The research participants comprised of contractors, financial institutions, public sector clients, consultants and facilities management organizations. The qualitative software Atlas.ti was used to analyse the textual data generated. The analysis showed that the achievement of best value requirements through PFI should hinge on: detailed risk analysis and appropriate risk allocation, drive for faster project completion, curtailment in project cost escalation, encouragement of innovation in project development, and maintenance cost being adequately accounted for. Factors that continue to challenge the achievement of best value are: high cost of the PFI procurement process, lengthy and complex negotiations, difficulty in specifying the quality of service, pricing of facility management services, potential conflicts of interests among those involved in the procurement, and the public sector clients' inability to manage consultants.

Public/private partnership (PPP) procurement is seen as an effective way to achieve value for money (VFM) in public infrastructure projects. The Private Finance Initiative (PFI) in the UK is a form of PPP that seeks to combine the advantages of competitive tender and flexible negotiation, and transfer risk away from the public sector. The final risk allocation agreement is reached along with overall contract agreement. It is important for the public client and the private bidders to assess all the potential risks through the whole project life. A questionnaire survey was conducted to explore preferences in risk allocation. Analysis of the response data shows that some risks should still be retained within the public sector or shared with the private sector. These are mainly macro and micro level risks. The majority of risks in PPP/PFI projects, especially those in the meso level risk group, should be allocated to the private sector. However, there are a few risks where unilateral allocation is not always obvious. The research findings should enable public sector clients to establish more efficient risk allocation frameworks in the early stages of project development. © 2004 Elsevier Ltd and IPMA. All rights reserved.

Public-private partnerships (PPPs) are increasingly used in the United Kingdom's public facilities and services provision through the Private Finance Initiative (PFI). Despite some casualties, PPP/PFI projects have been undertaken successfully, but the reasons for success are not entirely clear. Questionnaire survey research examined the relative importance of 18 potential critical success factors (CSF) for PPP/PFI construction projects in the UK. The results show that the three most important factors are: 'a strong and good private consortium', 'appropriate risk allocation' and 'available financial market'. Factor analysis revealed that appropriate factor groupings for the 18 CSFs are: effective procurement, project implementability, government guarantee, favourable economic conditions and available financial market. These findings should influence policy development towards PPPs and the manner in which partners go about the development of PFI projects. © 2005 Taylor & Francis Group Ltd.

© 2018, Emerald Publishing Limited. Purpose: The history of the development of non-clinical services in infection control (IC) dates back to the pre-modern era. There is evidence of health-care facility management (HFM) services in Roman military hospitals. With the fall of the Roman Empire, Christian beliefs and teaching shaped the development of HFM in monastic hospitals. It was not until the late Victorian era that the link between HFM services and diseases caused by “miasma”, or bad air, became established. The discovery of bacteria in the modern scientific era reduced the level of importance previously attached to non-clinical causes of infections. Today, in the NHS, HFM services continue to be treated as though they had no real role to play in IC. This paper aims to collate historical and epidemiological evidence to show the link between HFM and IC. Design/methodology/approach: The evidence gathered in this research paper is primarily based on an in-depth review of research from a wide range of sources. A “within-study literature analysis” was conducted to synthesise the research materials. This involved the application of “between-source triangulation” to verify the quality of the information contained in the studies, and “between-source complementarity” to provide an in-depth elaboration of the historical facts. Findings: Historical and epidemiological evidence shows that HFM services such as cleaning, waste management, catering, laundry and maintenance continue to play a crucial role in IC. This is corroborated by evidence gathered from the work of renowned pioneers in the field of IC. However, reforms in the NHS have failed to consider this, as HFM services have been largely fragmented through different partnership arrangements. Practical implications: Among many other things, this research raises the profile of HFM staff in relation to the issue of IC in hospitals. It presents convincing evidence to show that the relationship between the clinical and non-clinical domains in controlling infections in hospitals has a long history. The findings of this research give HFM staff invaluable information about the significant role of their profession in the control of infections in hospitals. Originality/value: This is one of the few studies examining the historical development of HFM services, as well as their contribution to IC. Other work in this area has mainly been framed from a clinical health-care perspective.

Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) are a major problem in the United Kingdom (UK) and worldwide. The UK has one of the worst rates of hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) in Western Europe. One reason for such poor performance is the failure of healthcare officials to tackle the root causes of HAIs in the National Health Service (NHS). The position of healthcare officials is that HAI is mainly a clinical issue; requiring the attention of clinicians. As a result, most of the infection control policies and guidelines do not sufficiently address the non-clinical causes of HAIs in the NHS. There is strong epidemiological evidence suggesting that HAIs can also occur because of the poor performance of facilities management (FM) services. An example of an FM service that has a strong link with HAI is healthcare maintenance. Despite being linked to such infections as aspergillosis, legionnaires etc, healthcare maintenance services (HMSs) in the NHS have nonetheless failed to attract the attention of healthcare authorities. In this study therefore, we examine the methodological approach in identifying the key performance indicators and measures in HMSs in infection control. This study is divided into two main sections. In the first section, we examine different research paradigms, as well as, the rational for choosing interpretivism in this study. The second section, which is on the research design, examines the research methodology and research methods applied in this study. Addressing these methodological issues is important in identifying the key performance indicators and measures in HMSs in infection control. © 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.

© 2015, Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to improve overall healthcare maintenance (HM) service performance in NHS infection control (IC). Hence, the authors identify critical success factors (CSFs) and key performance measures in maintenance-associated infections. These infections occur because of the poor performance of HM service in IC. Design/methodology/approach – In the first Delphi exercise, complete CSFs and performance measures were presented to the Delphi participants for refinement and modification. Delphi round 1 data were analysed manually and used to refine the rounds 2 and 3 Delphi instruments. In subsequent Delphi rounds, the results were analysed through descriptive statistics. Findings – In total, eight CSFs and 53 key performance measures were identified for reducing maintenance-associated infections in hospitals. For example, establishing clear communication between the infection control team (ICT) and HM unit is important for preventing maintenanceassociated HAIs. Dust prevention is also identified by the healthcare experts as an important measure to prevent maintenance-associated HAIs in high-risk patient areas. Originality/value – The findings provide CSFs and key performance measures for measuring performance in HM in IC. Reducing the rate of maintenance-associated infections will have important socio-economic and health ramifications for hospitals. It will reduce cost and free up additional resources for alternative projects. It will also raise confidence among healthcare users about the quality of services provided by hospitals.

© 2016, © Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Purpose: Healthcare maintenance (HM) services have an important role in the control of hospital-acquired infections (HAIs). Notwithstanding, many HM managers still do not measure the performance of HM services in infection control (IC). This research, therefore, aims to establish the level of importance of critical success factors (CSFs) and performance measures in HM IC. A performance measurement tool (PMT) was also developed to improve the performance of the HM unit in IC. Design/methodology/approach: The CSFs and performance measures identified in the literature were categorised into the four perspectives of balanced scorecard and analysed through Delphi. The Delphi participants were presented with 67 performance measures and asked to rate their level of importance in HM in IC. In total, they identified 53 important performance measures to control maintenance-associated HAIs. The results obtained from the Delphi study were used to categorise the performance measures into four means zones. The mean zones were assigned weights (1-4), and the level of importance of the CSFs was established through weighted average. Liaison and communication, IC practices and maintenance resource availability emerged as the most important CSFs in HM in IC. Conversely, customer satisfaction emerged as the least important. Information gathered about the CSFs and performance measures was used to develop a PMT in HM in IC. Findings: The following CSFs, liaison and communication, IC practices and maintenance resource availability, emerged as the most important in HM in IC. Conversely, customer satisfaction emerged as the least important. Information gathered about the CSFs and performance measures was used to develop a PMT in HM in IC. Originality/value: Through the application of the PMT, performance in IC can be estimated at different levels in the HM unit. The PMT allows managers to focus on the most crucial CSFs and performance measures that drive performance in HM in IC. The PMT could also be used for benchmarking purposes.

Economic theory suggests that construction investment varies directly with business and consumer confidence in national economic situation and inversely with price changes and interest rate. Studies of public and private sectors new housing and other new construction works using OLS regression analysis on UK data reveal the time lags and dynamics of these relationships. The time lags reveal the question of how rapid the construction investment could respond to changes in these underlying economic factors, as this may substantially determine private and public sector construction investment policies.