Dr Megan Hill

This study aimed to investigate academy football coaches’ perceptions and experiences of managing adolescent growth and maturation within the constraints of an English Premier League academy. Using a longitudinal mixed method design, 98 under 12–16 players were assessed for maturity status, growth velocities and match performance grade. Interviews were conducted in parallel, with their nine respective coaches. The quantitative and qualitative data were then combined to generate a rich, contextualised understanding. One case study is also presented as an archetypal example. Findings are presented in three themes. Coaches described the conflict between the value of winning and player development, difficulties in judging potential and performance, and the challenges of developing players in an elite competitive environment. Findings emphasise the intricacies of managing and developing adolescent athletes in academy football. Coaches in this study were challenged by the individual differences in growth and maturation and the elite, competitive and selective nature of football academies and the constraints of this environment exacerbate these challenges.

This study explored academy football coaches’ perceptions and experiences of managing individual differences in the maturity timing of male adolescent football players in an English Premier League academy. Using a longitudinal mixed method design, 98 under 12–16 players were assessed for maturity status, growth velocities, and match performance grade. Interviews with nine respective coaches were conducted in parallel. The qualitative and quantitative data were combined to generate a contextualised richer understanding and four archetypal case studies. Findings showed coaches perceive various advantages and disadvantages to players maturing either ahead or in the delay of their peers and had different expectations of performance based upon a players maturity status; biological maturity status and timing had large implications for selection and release decisions. This study highlights the challenges of developing, managing and selecting adolescent players in elite male youth football. Biological maturation confounds talent identification and development, and academy environments need to monitor maturity status and educate coaches and selectors on the complexities and intricacies of individual differences in maturity timing.

Abstract

Individual differences in biological maturation present challenges for coaches involved with youth soccer players. Youth in the same chronological age group vary in terms of stage of maturity (pre, circum- and post-pubescent) and rate of growth, but how this affects coaches’ evaluations of player performance is unknown. The aim of this study was to compare youth soccer coaches’ evaluations of players match performances before, during and post growth spurt in a professional English soccer academy across four seasons. Two hundred and seventy-eight male soccer players in the under-9 to under-16 age-groups had their performances evaluated by their coach on a 4-point Likert scale. For each game, players were categorised by their maturity status estimated using percentage of predicted adult height at the time of observation. A one-way ANCOVA controlling for the level of opposition and game outcome revealed that coaches’ evaluations declined from the pre- to during growth spurt stages, however, this was only significant in the under 12 age-group. Further, coaches’ evaluations increased again in the post-growth spurt stage, although only significant in the under 15 age-group. Coaches evaluations of player performance appear to vary in accordance with stage of maturity and rate of growth. Practitioners in youth soccer should understand the extent to which maturity status may adversely impact performance and consider this when making talent selection decisions.

Individual differences in growth and maturation impact physical and psycho-behavioural development. These consequences are especially salient in sports such as soccer where greater size, strength, speed, and power are considered desirable attributes. Measures of height and weight, combined with assessments of skeletal age or mid-height of the biological parents, can be used to predict the adult height of a player. Skeletal age is the most objective index of maturity and can be estimated from birth to adulthood. Non-invasive estimates of maturity status and timing based on anthropometry, labelled somatic maturation, are increasingly popular. Common methods include predicted maturity offset and percentage of predicted adult height. Youth soccer programmes should establish systematic policies and procedures for monitoring the growth and maturation in youth players. Player heights and weights should be measured every 3-4 months and the heights of their biological parents should be assessed or self-reported and adjusted to the tendency for overestimation.

Talent identification and selection in soccer has been shown to be confounded by individual differences in relative age and biological maturation. Limited research has however, investigated whether these effects are reflected in coaches’ evaluations of performance. This study investigated relative and biological age associated differences in coach perceptions of performance in a professional soccer academy across four seasons. The performances of 279 male players were evaluated on a 4-point Likert-scale. Multi-level modelling was used to examine predictive relationships between biological age, chronological age, result and opposition of game, on match grades. Result of the games was a statistically significant predictor of players perceived performance in every age-group; category of opposition was only significant in the under 13 and 14 age-groups. Biological age significantly predicted players perceived performance grades in the under 10, 14 and 15 age-groups, whereby advanced maturity predicted a higher grade. Across all age-groups, a relative age effect was observed, however age half was not a significant predictor of perceived performance grade in any age-group. Coaches evaluations of match performance appear to vary in accordance with maturity, opposition, and result of game. Academy staff should recognise and account for individual differences in biological maturation when retaining and releasing players.

This study examined the simultaneous effects of relative age and biological maturity status upon player selection in an English professional soccer academy. A total of 202 players from the U9 to U16 age groups, over an eight-year period (total of 566 observations), had their relative age (birth quarter) and biological maturity (categorised as late, on-time or early maturing based upon the Khamis-Roche method of percentage of predicted adult height at time of observation) recorded. Players born in the first birth quarter of the year (54.8%) were over-represented across all age groups. A selection bias towards players advanced in maturity status for chronological age emerged in U12 players and increased with age; 0% of players in the U15 and U16 age group were categorised as late maturing. A clear maturity selection bias for early maturing players was, however, only apparent when the least conservative criterion for estimating maturity status was applied (53.8% early and 1.9% late maturing in the U16 age group). Professional football academies need to recognise relative age and maturation as independent constructs that exist and operate independently. Thus, separate strategies should perhaps be designed to address the respective selection biases, to better identify, retain and develop players.

The majority of studies investigating maturation in football have focused on the impact of maturity status or timing upon athletic performance. There is comparatively little research investigating the impact of the adolescent growth spurt, and few research articles that have focussed on injury incidence and burden rather than performance. The aim of this study was to explore and better understand how the adolescent growth spurt impacts youth football players within professional academies. This longitudinal mixed-methods study aimed to understand youth football coaches’ perceptions, experiences, and management of male adolescent football players. Players’ maturity status, growth velocities, and match performance were measured and interviews with coaches were conducted in parallel. The qualitative and quantitative data were combined to generate a deeper contextualised understanding. This study revealed that academy football coaches describe adolescent growth as a ‘condition’; players are diagnosed with growth through perceived signs and symptoms, which coaches must manage and treat. Growth was also seen to impact coaches’ perceptions and therefore had implications for selection and release decisions. The findings from this study emphasise the complexities of experiencing and managing adolescent growth and maturation in the context of elite youth football.

Background: Individual differences in biological maturation impact player selection and development in youth football.Aim: To evaluate players perceptions of competing in a football tournament where they were matched by maturity rather than chronological age.Subjects: Participants included male junior footballers from three professional academies (n = 115).Methods: The study employed multiple methods of analysis, including one sample mean t-tests, equivalence tests, ANOVAs, and thematic analysis of qualitative data derived from open-ended questions.Results and conclusions: Player's perceived the bio-banding format as providing two main benefits. Early maturing players perceived greater physical and technical challenge, and in turn new opportunities and challenges. Late maturing players perceived less physical and technical challenge, yet greater opportunity to demonstrate technical and tactical abilities. The players reported that they enjoyed and understood the purpose of the bio-banded format, and perceived less risk for injury. Players in all three maturity groups reported more opportunity to engage in leadership behaviours, influence game-play, and express themselves on the ball in the bio-banded format. Bio-banding may facilitate development for both early and late maturing academy players by presenting new learning environments and challenges.

Context: Bio-banding is the process of grouping players by their maturational status rather than chronological age. It is designed to limit the impact of maturational timing on talent identification and development and expose early and late maturing players to new learning experiences and challenges. A common criticism of bio-banding is that it does not consider age related differences in psychosocial and behaviour development. Objective: The purpose of this case study is to describe how theory and research pertaining to the design and delivery of mixed-aged classrooms can be used to prepare early and late maturing players for bio-banding and optimise the benefits of this practice. Method: After placing the players in their bio-banded groups, one Elite Premier League Academy provided bespoke group psychology sessions for early and late maturing players for six weeks. Results: Providing bespoke psychology sessions for players maturation age allows for the cognitive processes of both early and late maturity status to work within the zone of proximal development. Conclusion: Pedagogical practice associated with mixed age classrooms can be used in bio-banded contexts to benefit both early and late maturing players. Delivering psychological sessions alongside bio-banding permits learning and development to both ends of the maturity spectrum.

Increasing female participation in football is a central goal of UEFA’s current strategy. One of the flagship initiatives to achieve this objective is the Playmakers programme. In conjunction with Disney, UEFA have designed and implemented a pan-European programme to introduce young girls aged five to eight years old to football. Through story-telling and imaginative play built around Disney characters and films, the programme aims to fulfil the needs and desires of this specific population, including fundamental movement skills, basic football skills, life skills, and to foster a love for physical activity and football. The premise is to achieve this in a custom-designed safe environment which promotes learning, fun and friendship (Lara-Bercial et al., 2019). This study evaluated the impact, experience, and perception of the programme from the perspective of the participating coaches, girls, and their parents. A mixed-methods approach including surveys, interviews and focus groups was used. Across numerous countries, all participants in the programme were sent an online post-programme survey to share their experience and perceptions. A sub-sample was subsequently selected to participate in focus groups or interviews to gather further information on the impact of the programme. Both the quantitative and qualitative data was analysed to form a rich, contextualised understanding. Preliminary findings show participants perceived the programme to attract and engage young girls to the sport, while also increasing their basic football and movement skills in a fun and safe way. Participants felt the story-telling pedagogy suited the targeted age range, but the programme lacked a competitive element for some.

This study explores the perceptions and experiences of teachers involved in the Football in Schools Programme, also known as Skolbollen. An online survey, developed collaboratively by the Swedish Football Association and Leeds Beckett University, was distributed to all participating schools. The collected data, encompassing various demographic groups, was analyzed by Leeds Beckett University to highlight differing experiences within the programme. The findings presented in this report provide insights into the impact and reception of the Skolbollen initiative across diverse educational settings. Part of UEFA Grassroots Programme.

Research shows that the coaching workforce in most countries is composed of a blend of volunteers and part-, and full-time paid individuals. However, the exact makeup of this workforce across the youth sport1 participation spectrum is not well understood. While previous studies have sought to understand the coaching landscape, very few studies have focused specifically on the youth sport landscape. Given the societal importance of youth sport and the positive contribution that coaches make, this is an area that needs further attention. Using a mass survey methodology, this study aimed to create a detailed picture of the current landscape of youth sport coaching in the United Kingdom. Findings show some similarities to previous workforce audits. For example, youth sport coaching is primarily a voluntary activity (62%)—yet, opportunities to access paid positions have grown. Moreover, findings also show that the youth sport workforce is not a homogenous entity. This signals the need for further research to gain an accurate understanding of the needs and wants of coaches individually, and in their specific working environments, before implementing any recruitment or development programmes.

Research shows that the coaching workforce in most countries is composed of a blend of volunteers, part-time and full-time paid individuals (Moustakas & Bales, 2022; UK Coaching, 2023a). However, the exact make up of this workforce across the youth sport1 participation spectrum is not well understood. While previous studies have sought to understand the coaching landscape, very few studies have focused specifically on the youth sport landscape. Given the societal importance of youth sport, and the positive contribution that coaches make (Lara-Bercial, Bales, et al., 2022), this is an area that needs further attention. Using a mass survey methodology, this study aimed to create a detailed picture of the current landscape of youth sport coaching in the UK. Findings show some similarities to previous workforce audits. For example, youth sport coaching is primarily a voluntary activity (62%) – yet opportunities to access paid positions have grown. Moreover, findings also show that the youth sport workforce is not a homogenous entity. This signals the need for further research to gain an accurate understanding of the needs and wants of coaches individually, and in their specific working environments, before implementing any recruitment or development programmes.

Despite the widespread health benefits of physical activity, globally, four out of five adolescents are insufficiently active. Sport participation, a key vehicle for physical activity, diminishes by as much as 80% as children get older. To-date no theoretically grounded, validated research meas-ure of dropout exists. In this two-paper series, we attempt to resolve this issue via the develop-ment, initial validation, and application of the Youth Sport Dropout Questionnaire. In the current paper – Pat I – we used the COM-B framework to design and initially validate The Youth Sport Dropout Questionnaire. Three sequential studies were conducted. Study 1 included a review of existing literature, an expert consultation and participant focus groups generating 49 reasons for youth sport dropout. Study 2 explored the functionality of the 49 items in a sample of 479 stu-dents. Exploratory factor analysis revealed a 28-item four-factor solution. Study 3 tested the di-mensionality and reliability of the scale in a sample of 648 students from seven European coun-tries. Confirmatory factor analysis supported a final 16-item, four-factor solution, suggesting that reasons for dropout behavior were captured by capability (C), opportunity (O), motivation (M) with the important new addition of injury (I). This initial validation supports the YDSQ as a rig-orous research tool to capture the reasons underpinning youth sport dropout behavior.

Organised sport is one potential antidote to the global youth inactivity crisis. Therefore, under-standing why young people drop out constitutes a key research endeavour. In paper 1 of this se-ries, we developed and validated a new Youth Sport Dropout Questionnaire (YSDQ). In paper 2, we used the YSDQ-LV (49-item long version) to examine dropout in 1127 university students from seven European countries. A four-stage analysis investigated the relative and combined im-portance of dropout reasons. Three items – the rocks – were statistically more important: “I prior-itised schoolwork and had no time left to take part in sport”; and “I found other things that I en-joyed doing more than sport”; and “I found it stressful when I did not perform/play as well as I expected”. On average, however, these rocks were rated as “moderately important”, along with 18 reasons (the pebbles) rated as “slightly important to moderately important”, and the remain-ing 26 reasons (the sand) rated as “slightly important to not at all important”. These findings suggest that sport dropout is not caused by a single reason but is underpinned by a dynamic tricky mix of reasons – a series of rocks, pebbles and sand unique to each young person.