Alex Stevenson

This article explores the emergence of musical performance practices whereby electronic music styles, along with the musical and sonic characteristics inherent in their electronic production, are emulated through live musical performance using acoustic instrumentation. The article draws on Brummett's (1999) concept of ‘machine aesthetics’ to explore the emergence of these practices, whereby musicians emulate sonic and musical attributes of music usually produced by machines, without the use of machines. Utilising semi-structured interviews and musical analysis of records by Abstract Orchestra and GoGo Penguin, the article attempts to contextualise these practices within their broader function in popular music production and performance.

This paper explores the use of machine aesthetics as an analytical framework within musicology. Brummett’s (1999) concept of ‘machine aesthetics’, and more specifically the three categories of Mechtech, Electrotech and Chaotech are explored alongside Brøvig-Hansenn’s (2018) notion of ‘opaque mediation’. These are then applied as analytical tools to musical examples of both recorded electronic music production, and live musical performances, to demonstrate how machine aesthetics apply beyond only music created using machines. References Brøvig-Hanssen, Ragnhild. 2018. Listening To or Through Technology: Opaque and Transparent Mediation in Popular Music. In Critical Approaches to the Production of Music and Sound, eds. Samantha Bennett and Eliot Bates, pp. 195–210. New York/London: Bloomsbury Academic. Brummett, B. 1999 Rhetoric of Machine Aesthetics, Greenwood Publishing Group.

Throughout history developments in recording technology have directly impacted upon musician’s performance practices, from the emergence of crooning afforded by the development of microphone technology, to the creative use of guitar feedback by Jimi Hendrix, through to Justin Vernon of Bon Iver singing ‘into’ Autotune. The use of machines in music recording and production introduced a series of new aesthetic characteristics and considerations which not only directly influenced popular music conventions in recorded music, but also directly impacted on the way in which musicians perform. Although many of these aspects of musical performance, such as the examples highlighted previously, are based on a musician’s interaction with a specific item of technology, there are also other, often overlooked examples where musicians circumvent the use of technology altogether, instead incorporating the aesthetics of the technology directly into their performance practice. Examples of this include pianists incorporating the sonic characteristics of tape delay into their performance, drummers mimicking synthetic or heavily processed drum sounds through modifications to their equipment and playing techniques, and singers mimicking the extreme pitch-correction effects of Autotune in their vocal performances. Using Brummett’s (1999) concept of ‘machine aesthetics’ as an analytical framework, this paper explores the emergence of these practices in an attempt to gain a better understanding their broader function within popular music culture. References Brummett, B. (1999). Rhetoric of Machine Aesthetics. Greenwood Publishing Group.

The introduction of digital sampling technology enabled electronic music producers to manipulate existing musical performances to achieve complex grooves that would have been significantly challenging, if not impossible for musicians to perform live. In hip hop, micro-rhythmic gestures created genre-specific grooves which, as discussed by D’Errico (2011), formed a significant component in the creation of sonic signatures for many influential hip hop producers. In drum’n’bass, samples of funk breakbeats were subjected to increases in both pitch and tempo, which along with the fragmentation and rearrangement of components of the sample, created complex rhythmic performances with timbral variations and characteristics far removed from those captured in the original recording of the drummer’s performance. Furthermore, in many experimental electronic music styles, as part of what Cascone refers to as a ‘”post digital” aesthetic’ (2000, p. 13), digital artefacts and failures became defining musical characteristics. The glitches of digital playback failure and what Brøvig-Hannsen & Danielsen refer to as ‘digital silence’ (2016) provide examples of digital characteristics that have become common place in contemporary popular music production. As a result of this, many contemporary popular musicians face the challenge of incorporating these musical characteristics performance practice. These musicians have therefor had to develop innovative performance techniques which allow them to (re)create these musical characteristics which conforms to a digital aesthetic, often without the use of digital technology. Drawing on the work of authors such as Keil (1995), Danielsen (2006; 2013) and Oliver (2015) utilising rhythmical and timbral analysis of musical works, this paper explores the impact of digital aesthetics on contemporary popular musicians and explores the ways in which the emerging techniques and practices can be better understood within popular music discourse. Bibliography Brøvig-Hanssen, R. & Danielsen, A. (2016) Digital Signatures: The Impact of Digitization on Popular Music Sound. MIT Press. Cascone, K. (2000) The Aesthetics of Failure: ‘Post-Digital’ Tendencies in Contemporary Computer Music. Computer Music Journal, 24 (4), pp. 12–18. Danielsen, A. (2006) Presence and Pleasure: The Funk Grooves of James Brown and Parliament. Wesleyan University Press. Danielsen, M. A. (2013) Musical Rhythm in the Age of Digital Reproduction. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. D’Errico, M. (2011) Behind the Beat: Technical and Practical Aspects of Instrumental Hip-Hop Composition [Online]. Tufts University. Available from: [Accessed 4 January 2014]. Keil, C. (1995) The Theory of Participatory Discrepancies: A Progress Report. Ethnomusicology, pp. 1–19. Oliver, R. A. (2015) Rebecoming Analogue: Groove, Breakbeats and Sampling [Online]. Hull: University of Hull. Available from: [Accessed 9 February 2017].

Despite the emergence of ethnographic scholarly activity in the study of record production, various barriers remain for researchers wishing to undertake fieldwork inside recording studios. Access to these spaces often relies on not only gaining the trust of the producer, engineers and musicians, but also commonly requires being an active participant in the creative or technical process (Bates, 2008; Thompson & Lashua, 2014). This paper therefor aims to explore the potential benefits of an alternative research approach by utilising access to digital multi-track recording sessions alongside video documentation of the recording process. Analysis of these sources will be supplemented by interviews with the musicians and production personnel in an attempt to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the processes that took place within the recording studio. Forming part of a PhD research project exploring machine aesthetics in contemporary popular music performance, this paper will focus on a specific case study; Manchester-based trio GoGo Penguin and their recent album ‘A Humdrum Star’ (2018), recorded at Low Floor studios, Manchester during the summer of 2017. Describing themselves as ‘recreating electronic music on acoustic instruments’ (Chris Illingworth, quoted in Blue Note, 2016), specific areas of interest will be the physical interactions of the musicians with their instruments, including their use of ‘various DIY twists’ (Rob Turner, quoted in Blue Note, 2018) to their acoustic instruments to achieve electronic sonic characteristics, together with consideration of the mediation of the recording technology used the production process and its impact on the perceived authenticity of the musical performance.

The ten EPMOW Genre volumes contain entries on the genres of music that have been or currently are popular in countries and communities all over the world. Included are discussions on cultural, historical and geographic origins; technical musical characteristics; instrumentation and use of voice; lyrics and language; typical features of performance and presentation; historical development and paths and modes of dissemination; influence of technology, the music industry and political and economic circumstances; changing stylistic features; notable and influential performers; and relationships to other genres and sub-genres. This volume, on the music of Europe, features a wide range of entries and in-depth essays. All entries conclude with a bibliography, discographical references and discography, with additional information on sheet music listings and visual recordings. Written and edited by a team of distinguished popular music scholars and professionals, this is an exceptional resource for anybody studying or researching the history and development of popular music.

Despite hip hop music’s origins as a live performance-based art form, utilising turntables and sound systems, the incorporation of digital sampling technologies gave rise to a sample-based aesthetic within hip hop production which traditionally rejected the use of live musicians. In his ethnographical study of hip hop production, Schloss goes as far as stating that as a hip hop producer ‘…it is the lack of samples – the use of live instrumentation – that must be justified’ (Schloss, 2004, p.67). This sample-based aesthetic is strongly linked to the notion of authenticity within hip hop production (Schloss, 2004; Williams, 2010), however use of live musicians has been evident throughout the history of hip hop; from live hip hop band The Roots , the use of session musicians to re-play samples in Dr. Dre’s Chronic 2001 (1999) to the self-sampling approach of Portishead’s self titled album (1997). More recently in the UK, the formation of bands such as Introducing Live whose debut project in 2009 was to recreate note for note the entirety of DJ Shadow’s exclusively sample-based album Endtroducing (1996) with a 10-piece live band and the Abstract Hip Hop Orchestra who, inspired by Miguel Atwood-Ferguson orchestral tribute to J-Dilla (2010), perform live versions of classic hip hop tracks with a 16 piece ensemble, demonstrate the integral role that live musicians can occupy within hip hop performances that were once the reserve of the DJ and MC. The role of live musicians in the field of hip hop production has often been ignored by scholars and these apparent contradictions in the pursuit hip hop authenticity are explored in this paper through analysis of interviews with musicians and producers active in the field, adding to the discourse around the role live musicians can play in an art-form and culture so engrained within a sampling-aesthetic. Bibliography Schloss, J.G. (2004) Making Beats: The Art of Sample-Based Hip-Hop. Wesleyan University Press. Williams, J.A. (2010) Musical borrowing in hip-hop music: theoretical frameworks and case studies. PhD Thesis. Nottingham, University of Nottingham. Available from: [Accessed 25 June 2013]. Discography DJ Shadow, Endtroducing [CD] FFRR, 1996 Dr. Dre, Chronic 2001 [CD] Interscope Records, 1999 Miguel Atwood-Ferguson, Mochilla Presents Timeless: Suite For Ma Dukes - The Music Of James ‘J Dilla’ Yancey [CD] Mochilla, 2010 Portishead, Portishead [CD] Go! Beat, 1997

The proliferation of digital sampling technology enabled hip hop producers to manipulate existing rhythmic performances to achieve complex grooves that would have been significantly challenging for musicians to perform live. Micro-rhythmic gestures emerged though this process, with specific grooves characterising the genre creating sonic signatures for many hip hop producers. However alongside this sample-based approach, a significant number of hip hop producers and artists utilised live musicians both in the recording and performance of their music. These musicians therefor faced significant challenges to be able to perform music that conformed to a sample-based aesthetic without the utilisation of the tools implicit in the creation of the aesthetic. This paper explores the impact of sample-based hip hop aesthetic on the practice of live hip hop musicians using rhythmic analysis of live hip hop performances, drawing on Greenwold’s (2002) analysis of hip hop drumming styles and Danielsen (2013; 2006) and Pedersen’s (2009) notion of micro-rhythmic gestures within hip hop. This analysis will be further supported by semi-structured interviews with hip hop musicians and producers, to gain a deeper understanding of their complex interpretation of the sample-based aesthetic in live music performance. Bibliography Danielsen, Anne. 2006. Presence and Pleasure: The Funk Grooves of James Brown and Parliament. Wesleyan University Press. ———. 2013. “Here, There and Everywhere: Three Accounts of Pulse in D’Angelo’s ‘Left and Right.’” In Musical Rhythm in the Age of Digital Reproduction, edited by Anne Danielsen, 19–35. Surrey, England: Ashgate. Greenwald, Jeff. 2002. “Hip-Hop Drumming: The Rhyme May Define, but the Groove Makes You Move.” Black Music Research Journal 22 (2): 259–71. Pedersen, Birgitte Stougaard. 2009. “Anticipation and Delay as Micro-Rhythm and Gesture in Hip Hop Aesthetics.” Journal of Music & Meaning 8 (2): 1–22.

The emergence of localised sub-genres of Hip Hop around the world has been well documented (Mitchell, 2001; Williams, 2002; Bennett, 1999), however the genre of UK Hip Hop (or British Hip Hop) has been largely overlooked in scholarly research. Although largely an underground music scene with very limited commercial success, UK Hip Hop has been recognized as being pivotal in the development of the more commercially successful genres of Grime, Trip Hop and Drum’n’Bass (Hesmondhalgh & Melville, 2001; Campion, 2006). Existing research into UK Hip Hop has often been from a cultural or sociological perspective (Hesmondhalgh & Melville, 2001; Webb, 2007; Bennett, 1999; Dedman, 2011), and although there is existing research analysing the compositional approach of Turntablist groups within in UK (Smith, 2007), research into the production processes of UK Hip Hop is evident. Whilst many UK Hip Hop producers acknowledge the influence of American producers in the development of their style of production, there is recognition of UK Hip Hop having its own unique sonic characteristics (Youngs, 2005). This uniqueness has sometimes been attributed to the experimental nature of the genre, partly due to its underground status, and its incorporation of a wide range of other musical genres established in British music culture (McFadden, 2009). This paper aims to identify and explore the unique aspects of UK Hip Hop through analysis of the approaches to the composition and production process. Through the use of interviews with key UK Hip Hop producers and analysis of key musical works, this research centres on the following four key themes: • Access to and utilisation of technology, • The influence of specific US Hip Hop producers • The integration of elements of other music genres. • Authenticity in British Hip Hop. References Bennett, A. (1999) Rappin’ on the Tyne: White Hip Hop Culture in Northeast England – an Ethnographic Study. The Sociological Review, 47 (1), pp.1–24. Campion, C. (2006) Inside grime. The Guardian. Available from: [Accessed 14 November 2012]. Dedman, T. (2011) Agency in UK hip-hop and grime youth subcultures - peripherals and purists. Journal of Youth Studies, 14 (5), pp.507–522. Hesmondhalgh, D. & Melville, C. (2001) Urban Breakbeat Culture - Repercussions of Hip-Hop in the United Kingdom. In: T. Mitchell ed. Global Noise: Rap and Hip Hop outside the USA. Wesleyan University Press. Available from: . McFadden, D. (2009) Keeping It Real. creativetourist.com. Available from: [Accessed 15 November 2012]. Mitchell, T. ed. (2001) Global Noise: Rap and Hip Hop outside the USA. Wesleyan University Press. Smith, S. (2007) The process of ‘collective creation’ in the composition of UK hip-hop turntable team routines. Organised Sound, 12 (1), pp.79–87. Webb, P. (2007) Hip hop’s musicians and audiences in the local musical ‘milieu’. In: P. Hodkinson & W. Deicke eds. Youth Cultures: Scenes, Subcultures and Tribes. Oxon, Routledge. Available from: [Accessed 12 November 2012]. Williams, T. (2002) Globalization of Hip-Hop: Available from: . Youngs, I. (2005) Is UK on verge of Brithop boom? BBC. Available from: [Accessed 14 November 2012].

Despite the technological developments, reduced production budgets and client expectation of instant mix recalls and amendments leading to professional mixing engineers to be working predominantly ‘in the box’, many engineers still choose to incorporate the use of analog hardware in their practice in a hybrid analog/digital system. Through analysis of semi-structured interviews with a number of professional producers and mixing engineers, this chapter examines current mixing practice to identify emerging hybrid mixing strategies and techniques and consider how these could be integrated into educational curricula.

This article explores the intricate relationship between human musicianship and machine music through the lens of ‘machine aesthetics’ – a concept that encompasses both music derived from machines and music that mimics these expressions. Machine aesthetics gains particular relevance in contexts where musicians replicate effects typically achieved with drum machines, samplers and digital audio workstations. By examining live performances that closely mimic the sonic elements of machine music, we aim to provide a nuanced understanding of this aesthetic. Drawing on Barry Brummett’s theoretical framework from Rhetoric of Machine Aesthetics (1999), which categorizes machine aesthetics into ‘mectech’, ‘electrotech’ and ‘chaotech’, we clarify some often-conflated concepts and apply the framework to music analysis. We suggest that integrating these concepts into analyses can enhance our understanding of the causal and imaginative relationships between musical expressions and machines. This exploration underscores the interplay and dynamically perceived boundaries between human creativity and machine-driven elements in music, which continue to enrich and redefine contemporary music practices.

The Leeds-based ensemble Abstract Orchestra have garnered international acclaim for reinvigorating tracks by experimental hip hop icons like J Dilla, Madlib, and MF DOOM. As part of a growing movement of musicians reinterpreting esteemed hip hop recordings as live performances, Abstract Orchestra emulate the sounds of sample- and computer-based music while embracing creative interpretation and revision. This chapter examines their cover of Madvillain’s “Meat Grinder,” addressing the complexities of covering music created by Black artists within a predominantly white ensemble. Drawing on the concept of Signifyin(g), the analysis emphasizes Abstract Orchestra’s rich dialogue with the original track and argue that their cover can be positioned as respectful homage rather than exploitative appropriation. As such, it may offer a unique listening experience and contribute meaningfully to the hip hop legacy.

This chapter argues that the contested definitions of educational categories provide a useful starting point in acknowledging the complexities of musical learning both inside and outside educational institutions. It focuses on data gathered from an electronically distributed questionnaire and a series of semi-structured interviews, with the specific aim of focusing on popular electronic musicians' musical practices, processes and experiences within Higher Education (HE) in the United States. The chapter also focuses on Papageorgi et al.'s approach to capturing students perceptions of the pervading philosophy within their respective educational institutions. Music education is often grouped into three broad forms: formal, non-formal and informal, which are characterized by their methods of learning. In order to contextualize the popular electronic musicians' perceptions and experiences of formal education, the interviews began by exploring their experiences of music education prior to their HE studies.

Although formal educational institutions in the UK, and particularly in Higher Education (HE), have begun to include aspects of dance music and hip-hop styles of music in their curricula, there is still a notable lack of research into the relationship between popular electronic music-making practices, such as performance, and formal education. This study explores some of the experiences, perceptions and reflections of popular electronic musicians in formal educational institutions in the UK with a specific focus on the performance of popular electronic music. Our findings show that formal education has had some impact on the development of popular electronic musicians' practice and, in some cases, acted as an introduction to popular electronic styles of music. However, the study's findings also highlight the need to develop more comprehensive musical curricula that include popular electronic styles of music as well as the more established popular musical styles such as rock.