Dr David Alder

We examined the effects of high- versus low-anxiety conditions during video-based training of anticipation judgments using international-level badminton players facing serves and the transfer to high-anxiety and field-based conditions. Players were assigned to a high-anxiety training (HA), low-anxiety training (LA) or control group (CON) in a pretraining–posttest design. In the pre- and posttest, players anticipated serves from video and on court under high- and low-anxiety conditions. In the video-based high-anxiety pretest, anticipation response accuracy was lower and final fixations shorter when compared with the low-anxiety pretest. In the low-anxiety posttest, HA and LA demonstrated greater accuracy of judgments and longer final fixations compared with pretest and CON. In the high-anxiety posttest, HA maintained accuracy when compared with the low-anxiety posttest, whereas LA had lower accuracy. In the on-court posttest, the training groups demonstrated greater accuracy of judgments compared with the pretest and CON.

Successful sports performance requires athletes to be able to mediate any detrimental effects of anxiety whilst being able to complete tasks simultaneously. In this study, we examine how skill level influences the ability to mediate the effects of anxiety on anticipation performance and the capacity to allocate attentional resources to concurrent tasks. We use a counterbalanced, repeated measures design that required expert and novice badminton players to complete a film-based anticipation test in which they predicted serve direction under high- and low-anxiety conditions. On selected trials, participants completed an auditory secondary task. Visual search data were recorded and the Mental Readiness Form v-3 was used to measure cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence. The Rating Scale of Mental Effort was used to measure mental effort. The expert players outperformed their novice counterparts on the anticipation task across both anxiety conditions, with both groups anticipation performance deteriorating under high- compared to low-anxiety. This decrease across anxiety conditions was significantly greater in the novice compared to the expert group. High-anxiety resulted in a shorter final visual fixation duration for both groups when compared to low-anxiety. Anxiety had a negative impact on secondary task performance for the novice, but not the expert group. Our findings suggest that expert athletes more effectively allocated attentional resources during performance under high-anxiety conditions. In contrast, novice athletes used more attentional resources when completing the primary task and, therefore, were unable to maintain secondary task performance under high-anxiety.

Purpose: We examined links between the kinematics of an opponent’s actions and the visual search behaviors of badminton players responding to those actions. Method: A kinematic analysis of international standard badminton players (n = 4) was undertaken as they completed a range of serves. Video of these players serving was used to create a life-size temporal occlusion test to measure anticipation responses. Expert (n = 8) and novice (n = 8) badminton players anticipated serve location while wearing an eye movement registration system. Results: During the execution phase of the opponent’s movement, the kinematic analysis showed between-shot differences in distance traveled and peak acceleration at the shoulder, elbow, wrist and racket. Experts were more accurate at responding to the serves compared to novice players. Expert players fixated on the kinematic locations that were most discriminating between serve types more frequently and for a longer duration compared to novice players. Moreover, players were generally more accurate at responding to serves when they fixated vision upon the discriminating arm and racket kinematics. Conclusions: Findings extend previous literature by providing empirical evidence that expert athletes’ visual search behaviours and anticipatory responses are inextricably linked to the opponent action being observed

This paper presents a fictional dialogue that supports the application of theory in coaching pedagogy. The “constraints led approach” (CLA) is promoted throughout in conversation form, providing pedagogic solutions in response to the decaying performance levels of a fictitious football team. This deterioration is linked to “poor” coaching and the merits of a more innovative pedagogy through a discussion between “manager” and “coach” are presented. Recommendations are made with particular reference to developing games players, who are skilful, perceptive and intelligent, through being able to initiate and modify actions in dynamic contexts. Through substantiating a platform for both changing perceptions about coaching practice and challenging assumptions about learning, such accessibility to unfamiliar knowledge(s) can allow coaches to clearly consider possibilities for change. It is further suggested that through embracing the use of novel methodologies to consider unfamiliar theoretical territory, this demonstrates a responsibility to close and not widen a theory-practice gap. By presenting Mark (coach) as “theoretical negotiator”, this paper emphasises the potency of experimenting with nuanced methods that can be part of an academic process to help shape more theoretically literate coaches.

There is wide interest in using technologies to enhance the training of sports-specific skills. One promising technology is virtual reality (VR) because it can provide the athlete with rich, immersive, and representative scenarios. The key question is whether training with these systems will transfer to real-world performance. This systematic review examines the existing literature on using VR to improve sports decision-making. We identified 25 papers that used VR (which was very broadly defined by researchers) to train decision-making, and evaluated them with respect to transfer using the Modified Perceptual Training Framework (MPTF: Hadlow et al., 2018). In general research is taking advantage of VR’s ability to provide realistic environment, however many papers still rely on simple, non-representative actions from the athletes. Importantly, only six papers specifically assessed transfer of training to real world behaviour; given that transfer is the purpose of this training, this is a strong limitation on the developing evidence. The existing work does show that VR is worth investigating, so we make a series of recommendations to strengthen future research, with an emphasis on always measuring transfer and doing so guided by ecological approaches such as task dynamics (e.g. Leach et al., 2021a, b) and the MPTF.

The processes underpinning half-time (HT) breaks in elite sport and their impact are an aspect of performance that has been under-researched in coaching literature. This study examines how players experience and interpret the HT interval in elite team sport. Specifically, it explored the perceptions and experiences of successful elite Gaelic Football players during HT. A qualitative design was employed, utilising semi-structured interviews with elite male Gaelic football players (N = 14) who had won the highest accolade in the sport. Interview recordings for each participant (Mduration = 71 min) were transcribed verbatim, and reflexive thematic analysis identified three higher-order themes. First, navigating poor HT standards to meet player needs. Players described HT talks as mundane, repetitive, and a missed opportunity to enhance second-half performance. Participants noted insufficient time for recovery and excessive tactical details, interspersed with coaches’ emotional outbursts, which led to player disengagement. Second, players experiencing harmful feedback and player coping strategies. Participants highlighted the negative psychological impact of harsh feedback, citing diminished confidence and self-esteem, as well as potential trauma after recalled instances of humiliation. While some players used these HT coach criticisms as a motivator to increase second half performance, most preferred constructive, solution-focused communication. Finally, optimising HT communication. Players emphasised the importance of a calm and tactically focused environment supported by visual aids that incorporated storytelling when the specific HT situation required inspiration. The findings highlight elite team sport players’ desire for more structured HT communication, higher player involvement, and an appropriate balance to tactical and motivational elements that enhance message clarity and talk impact, respectively. Thus, the above experiences regarding HT talks can serve coaches to understand players’ preferences albeit these might not necessarily match players’ needs during HT.

This study examined the processes of perceptual-motor calibration/recalibration of defensive football players in a 1-vs-1 scenario. Ankle weights were used to reduce the acceleration capabilities of players performing an anticipation test, with the aim being to examine the player’s response to the disturbance in terms of when movement was initiated and the impact on the mechanisms that underpinned anticipation, namely gaze behaviour. The ankle weights disturbed the perceptual-motor system and players initiated movement significantly earlier in the 1-vs-1 anticipation test. Analyses of perceptual-motor calibration/recalibration revealed that players acted closer to their maximal action capabilities prior to the addition of ankle weights, which negatively influenced the scaling of action capabilities. Moreover, players were unable to recalibrate whilst wearing ankle weights. However, following the withdrawal of the ankle weights, players were able to recalibrate within 11–15 trials. Players did not adapt gaze behaviour as a result of the disturbance being placed on the perceptual-motor system, but task familiarization resulted in more efficient eye movements. The results of this study show the importance of providing players the opportunity to “scale” action to perceptual information.

This systematic review explored the under-researched experience of performance slumps in sport with four objectives: (i) review definitions of a performance slump; (ii) identify known causes of a performance slump; (iii) identify the symptoms athletes present when in a performance slump; and (iv) review approaches used to combat a slump in performance. Literature searches into three databases (PsychARTICLES, PsychINFO and SPORTDiscus) resulted in the inclusion of quantitative (n = 14) and qualitative (n = 4) empirical research studies. The findings were thematically analysed and narratively synthesised. Results showed that: (i) definitions of a performance slump vary; (ii) perceived expectations for success and athletes attributing poor performance to something about themselves have been empirically verified as performance slump causes; (iii) during a slump, athletes might display a range of emotional and psychological symptoms and/or adopt skill-focused attention; and (iv) athletes reported several ways of coping with a performance slump, and research has offered succeeding under pressure as a potential route out of a slump. This systematic review highlights the need for an empirical investigation of the performance slump phenomenon. Future studies should be directed towards understanding the prominent symptoms athletes experience during the slump, so that cause, context, competitor and symptomatic dependant intervention strategies can be designed.

This study examined the impact of combining physical and mental load on the anticipatory judgements of skilled soccer players. Sixteen players completed an 11vs11 video anticipation test in four counterbalanced conditions, each separated by 7 days. The baseline condition consisted of only the anticipation test. A physical load condition required participants to complete a simulated soccer protocol on a treadmill followed by the anticipation test. A mental load condition required participants to complete a 30-min Stroop test followed by the anticipation test. Finally, in the combined load condition, participants completed the physical load protocol alongside the mentally loading Stroop task followed by the anticipation test. Response accuracy, visual search behaviour and measures of effort were assessed throughout. Response accuracy decreased in the separate physical load and mental load conditions when compared to baseline and worsened further in the combined load condition. The reduction in response accuracy across experimental conditions coincided with an increase in the number of fixations when compared to the baseline condition. It is suggested that the separate sources of load impaired the players ability to allocate sufficient resources to task-relevant information leading to a reduction in anticipatory accuracy, and this was exacerbated in the combined load condition.

This study used small-sided games (SSGs) to induce fatigue and therefore, reduce the action capabilities of Varsity soccer players (n= 20). The aim was to examine the effect of compromised action capabilities on defensive movement response in a 1-vs-1 scenario. Action capabilities were assessed via countermovement jumps (CMJ), 5-m acceleration, 20-m sprint and a Change of Direction (COD) test. Defensive movement response was measured via a Soccer-Specific Anticipation Test (SSAT). Following SSGs, significant reductions were observed in jump (p=.04, d=.31), acceleration (p<.001, d=.98), and sprint (p<.001, d=.66) performance. Significantly, players tended to move earlier in the SSAT following SSGs (p=.049, d=.66). Furthermore, to examine the distinct effect of reductions in each action capability, players were categorised according to whether SSGs had a worthwhile change in CMJ, acceleration, sprint or COD performance. For each of the four measures, movements tended to be initiated earlier following SSGs, although pre-/post-SSGs differences were not significant (p =.08-.51), moderate to large effect sizes were shown (d=.56-.84). These findings intimate that compromised action capabilities influence the timing of the movement response of defensive players in 1-vs-1 situations.

We examined the effects of combining perceptual-cognitive training with physiological stress on anticipatory judgements in elite badminton players. Players were assigned to either a Combined Training group (CT), where the simulation training and the physiological stress intervention occurred simultaneously, or an Independent Training group (IT), whereby simulation training and a physiological stress intervention were completed independently. Participants completed a pre- and post-test in which they responded to occluded video clips of badminton shots. In between each trial, a badminton-specific exercise protocol was completed. Pre-test data showed that under very high physiological stress response accuracy reduced, participants had less efficient visual search behaviour, and mental effort increased. In the post-test, the CT group improved performance in the final block under high physiological stress, compared to the pre-test, while the IT group showed the same drop in performance as in the pre-test. Analysis of visual search showed that the CT group maintained a similar behaviour across post-test blocks, while the IT group showed a reduction in visual search efficiency in the post-test final block. Findings demonstrate physiological stress negatively affects perceptual-cognitive skill. However, combining perceptual-cognitive training with high physiological stress can negate the debilitating effects of physiological stress on anticipatory performance.

There is wide interest in using technologies to enhance the training of sports-specific skills. One promising immersive technology is virtual reality (VR) because it can provide the athlete with rich, immersive, and representative scenarios. The key question is whether training with these systems will transfer to real-world performance. This scoping review examines the existing literature on using VR to improve sports decision-making. We identified 25 papers that used VR (which was very broadly defined by researchers) to train decision-making, and evaluated them with respect to transfer using the Modified Perceptual Training Framework [MPTF: Hadlow et al. (2018). Modified perceptual training in sport: A new classification framework. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 21(9), 950–958]. In general, research is taking advantage of VR’s ability to provide realistic environment, however many papers still rely on simple, non-representative actions from the athletes. Importantly, only six papers assessed transfer of training to real-world behaviour; given that transfer is the purpose of this training, this is a strong limitation on the developing evidence. The existing work does show that VR is worth investigating, so we make a series of recommendations to strengthen future research, with an emphasis on always measuring transfer and doing so guided by ecological approaches such as task dynamics [e.g. Leach, D., Kolokotroni, Z., & Wilson, A. D. (2021a). Perceptual information supports transfer of learning in coordinated rhythmic movement. Psychological Research, 85(3), 1167–1182; Leach, D., Kolokotroni, Z., & Wilson, A. D. (2021b). The ecological task dynamics of learning and transfer in coordinated rhythmic movement. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 506] and the MPTF.

Research remains unclear on the impact of physiological load on perceptual-cognitive skills in sport. Moreover, no study has examined the training of perceptual-cognitive skills under physiological load. The current study comprised two phases. Firstly, we examined the impact of badminton-specific physiological load on anticipatory skills in expert badminton players (n = 13), including key underlying mechanisms, such as gaze behaviour. Under high physiological load, participants displayed less efficient visual search behaviour and showed a reduction in response accuracy. Secondly, we examined the effects of combining perceptual-cognitive simulation training with high physiological load. Ten of the expert badminton players were assigned to a combined training group, where the simulation training and the physiological load intervention occurred simultaneously, or an independent training group, whereby the two components were completed independently. The combined training group showed a positive change in the efficiency of their visual search behaviours compared to the independent training group, but no significant performance improvements were found. Overall, findings demonstrate that high physiological load is detrimental to experts’ anticipatory skills. However, combining perceptual-cognitive simulation training with high physiological load can potentially negate these debilitating effects.

The stimulus article, “Golf swing technician Jim Christine: Bridging the gap between the science of the golf swing and the art of golf coaching”, and the accompanying commentaries present some key issues in golf coaching, especially coach development, technology, coaching methods, and critical thinking. The first two commentaries provide insight about Jim Christine’s development as a coach. International golf coach Peter Green discusses the legendary John Jacobs, who Jim accepted an invitation from to shadow him at one of his golf schools; and John Stirling, who Jim had coaching from on his own golf game. PGA Master Professional Luther Blacklock discusses Alex Hay, who also coached Jim. Both Stirling and Hay were pioneers in the training programme of the Professional Golfers’ Association (PGA) of Great Britain and Ireland in which Jim became highly influential as an author of training resources and as a tutor. There are commentaries from three distinguished members of the PGA of America, the world’s largest working sports organisation: David Wright, John Callahan and Eric Alpenfels. John Callahan shares how he took up opportunities to shadow leading golf coaches such as TJ Tomasi, Craig Shankland and Paul Runyan during his PGA apprenticeship under Frank Cardi. Callahan advocates the use of launch monitors as a technological aid, more staunchly so than Jim Christine who is aware of the limitations in the algorithms involved in providing the output from a radar device like TrackMan for measuring impact factors. Chris Bertram refers to his own empirical research on the use of another technological aid, video feedback, to indicate that “just because technical information is readily available, it does not mean that more information is necessarily serving the interests of the student” (p. 37). Drawing on his doctoral research on operant conditioning, David Wright discusses backward chaining, which is one of the coaching methods used by Jim Christine. Eric Alpenfels discusses Jim’s use of coaching methods in terms of “focus of attention – internal/external swing cues” (p. 33). Researchers Thomas Hawkins et al., suggest that “[the clock analogy], one of Christine’s favoured coaching tools may result in performance and learning benefits [through external focus of attention] because it allows the body to organise movement better than it would if conscious control was either requested or triggered by an internally focused coaching instruction” (p. 35). In a similar vein, Nicky Lumb, a PGA coach “who specialises in golf practice management, skill development and peak performance” (p. 40), indicates that several of Jim’s coaching tools give the golfer an external focus of attention. There is overlap in what Nicky does with Edward Coughlan, a sports scientist whose “main job for players involves asking questions about how they practice, what they practice and inevitably, whether their practice transfers to the competition arena” (p. 42). While two PGA of Great Britain and Ireland professionals, Will Shaw and Gordon Morrison discuss some of Jim’s coaching methods from an Information-Processing perspective, a third one – Noel Rousseau – advocates an Ecological Dynamics/Constraints-led Approach. Rousseau presents the case that “Jim’s coaching methods are staunchly embedded in the Information Processing camp yet he simultaneously highlights some of the shortcoming of coaching this way” (p. 50), especially on the matter of sloping lies (p. 51). Jim describes himself as a “swing technician” (p. 17). Researchers Liam Thomas et al. discuss the notion of a ‘model golf swing’ or ‘technical blue print’ and highlight the challenge of distinguishing between ‘technical faults’ and “the inherent variability both within and between individuals in response to changes in constraints” (p. 54). Tour pro coach, Hugh Marr argues, “Every coach has a picture in their head of what a great swing looks like. It’s not the model that makes coaches great, it’s the understanding of what George Gankas calls ‘match-ups’ – if a player displays one particular swing characteristic, they need to match it with another swing characteristic that complements it” (p. 57). The final two commentaries, by research professor David Grecic and performance coach Jon Roy, both emphasize the development of critical thinking in coaches, with the latter arguing that “Jim’s critical faculties comprise dialectics, scepticism, and innovation” (p. 63).

The relationship between focus of attention instructions and motor performance is a topic of significant research interest. It is widely accepted that attending to the mechanics of the movement when performing a motor task (internal focus) yields poorer performance and less effective movement organisation than attending to the movement outcome (external focus). Specifically, an external focus is suspected to promote more flexibility in the motor system, inducing more effective muscular activity and movement kinematics, which are mechanisms directly responsible for organisation of the resulting movements. However, no review has systematically assessed the influence focus of attention instructions have on muscular activity and movement kinematics. The purpose of this systematic review was to examine evidence on the effect that focus of attention instructions have on the underpinning mechanisms of movement organisation. Adhering to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines, a comprehensive electronic literature search yielded 36 research studies. Using a narrative methodological approach, the findings were thematically analysed and synthesised. Generally, external focus of attention instructions resulted in muscular activity and movement kinematic profiles that reflect more effective movement organisation than those resulting from the provision of internal focus instructions; thus, supporting a central tenet of the constrained action hypothesis.

This study aimed to assess the impact of a psychosocial development program on academy soccer players with coaches being central design and delivery. The 8 Pillars program (designed to foster Communication, Control, Commitment, Confidence, Concentration, Resilience, Presence, and Self-awareness) was delivered through player workshops, coaching practice, and coach-led environmental manipulation. A total of 25 academy soccer players (Mage 14.7 ± 0.3) completed the Psychological Characteristics of Development Excellence Questionnaire-2 pre- and postseason, and a self-report scale for each of the eight prescribed psychosocial skills and characteristics at five time points across the season. Significant (p < .05) improvement between pre- and postseason for “Imagery and Active Preparation,” “Seeking and Using Social Support,” and “Active Coping” factors within the Psychological Characteristics of Development Excellence Questionnaire-2 were evident. Significant (p < .05) improvements were shown for “Communication,” “Control,” “Commitment,” “Concentration,” and “Resilience” scales across the season. These findings give initial efficacy that a targeted, multifaceted program, largely delivered by coaches, can improve player self-reported psychosocial skills and characteristics in a U.K. academy soccer setting.

The possession and development of psychosocial characteristics can be advantageous for young athletes (Gledhill, et al., 2017). The aim of this study was to evaluate a programme (the 8 Pillars) designed to develop prescribed psychosocial components in English male academy soccer players. The 8 Pillars programme (including Communication, Control, Commitment, Concentration, Confidence, Resilience, Presence, and Self-awareness; Till et al., 2020) is a theoretically, empirically, and practically driven programme to support the development of psychosocial components in youth sport participants. The programme delivery included player workshops, coach development activities and coach observation across a season. To assess programme efficacy, 25 male academy players (Mage 14.7 + 1.34) completed the Psychological characteristics of Development Excellence Questionnaire-2 (PCDE-2, Hill et al., 2019) pre- and post-season. Players also completed the 8 Pillars self-report form at 5 time points across the season. Paired samples t-tests reported significant increases for 3 of the PCDE-2 subscales, namely ‘Imagery and Active Preparation’ (3.42 + 0.87 vs 4.10 + 1.02, p<0.001), ‘Seeking and using Social Support’ (4.20 + 0.79 vs 4.87 + 0.76, p<0.01) and ‘Active Coping’ (4.21 + 0.78 vs 4.85 + 0.66, p<0.001). Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) reported significant increases over time all pillars apart from Presence. The findings demonstrate that the 8 Pillars programme may support development of psychosocial characteristics in academy soccer players over a season. Any programme seeking to develop psychosocial components should consider integration of psychosocial components into the practical coaching programme, through additional development, planning and evaluation activity to optimise impact.

Investigation into the links between coach leadership style, practice hours and injury prevalence are fairly novel in the sporting domain. 2 Previous literature has highlighted the links between achieving elite performance and practice hours, and with that, a stronger likelihood of injury prevalence and exposure. This project provided an opportunity for badminton players of all skill levels to share information around coach leadership style, practice history hours and injury prevalence through an online questionnaire. The aims of the research were to examine whether certain forms of developmental activities lead to an increased risk of injury burden and identify if there is a relationship between perceived coach leadership style and injury prevalence in badminton players. Descriptive statistics and multiple regression analyses were carried out to draw comparisons between injured and non-injured participants and determine whether significant predictors of injury prevalence were present. 1 Findings suggested that coach-led practice hours were a positive predictor of injury prevalence in the 19-23 age phase examined, with a trend toward significance found for coach-led practice hours in the 16-18 age phase. Descriptive statistics allowed for comparison of practice hours and global transformational leadership (GTL) scores between injured and non-injured counterparts. No differences were found in GTL scores between injured and non-injured participants, suggesting individual sports may foster closer, more positive coach-athlete relationships. The noted findings are considered alongside current injury