Dr Nick Stanger

Aggression has been linked to empathy and emotions (e.g., guilt) in cross-sectional studies. The purpose of this experiment was to examine the effects of empathy on emotional reactions to aggression and the role of guilt in the empathy–aggression relationship. Seventy-one undergraduate sport and exercise science students with a mean age of 19.56 (SD = 1.94) years were randomly assigned to either a high- or a low-empathy group. We experimentally manipulated empathy using perspective taking instructions and examined the following: (a) participants’ emotional reactions to images of aggressive acts; (b) their reported likelihood to aggress in a hypothetical sport situation; and (c) the extent to which they anticipated feeling guilt if they were to engage in an aggressive act. Participants in the high-empathy group experienced stronger negative emotional reactions to images of aggressive acts and reported lower likelihood to aggress than did those in the low-empathy group. Anticipated guilt partially mediated the effects of empathy on reported likelihood to aggress. Our findings suggest that empathy may help reduce aggressive behavior and highlight the potential mediating role of guilt.

The purpose of this research was to provide further evidence for the construct validity (i.e., convergent, concurrent, and discriminant validity) of the Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviour in Sport Scale (PABSS), an instrument that has four subscales measuring prosocial and antisocial behaviour toward teammates and opponents. We also investigated test-retest reliability and stability of the PABSS. We conducted three studies using athletes from a variety of team sports. In Study 1, participants (N = 129) completed the PABSS and measures of physical and verbal aggression, hostility, anger, moral identity, and empathy; a sub-sample (n = 111) also completed the PABSS one week later. In Study 2, in addition to the PABSS, participants (N = 89) completed measures of competitive aggressiveness and anger, moral attitudes, moral disengagement, goal orientation, and anxiety. In Study 3, participants (N = 307) completed the PABSS and a measure of social goals. Across the three studies, the four subscales evidenced the hypothesised relationships with a number of variables. Correlations were large between the two antisocial behaviours and small between the two prosocial behaviours. Overall, the findings supported the convergent, concurrent, and discriminant validity of the scale, provided evidence for its test-retest reliability and stability, and suggest that the instrument is a valid and reliable measure of prosocial and antisocial behaviour in sport.

Although the empathy-aggression relationship has been well documented, research has yet to establish whether emotions mediate and gender moderates this relationship in athletes, under conditions of low and high provocation. In this experiment, we assigned team-sport athletes to either a high (n = 40) or a low (n = 40) empathy group, and asked them to compete in a reaction-time task against a (fictitious) opponent, under conditions of low and high provocation. Empathy reduced aggression (i.e., intensity of electrical shock administered to the opponent) at low provocation in men, and at both low and high provocation in women. Guilt mediated the effect of empathy on aggression at low provocation in men; anger did not mediate any effects of empathy on aggression. Our findings indicate that the inhibitory effect of empathy on aggression and the mediating role of guilt are moderated by provocation and gender.

Given the prevalence and significance of antisocial behavior in sport, researchers have begun to explore the role that self conscious moral emotions play in reducing such behavior. In this research, we examined whether moral identity inhibits antisocial behaviour and whether these effects are mediated by anticipated guilt. Using a cross-sectional design, Study 1 showed that moral identity was negatively related to antisocial behavior. Study 2 found that the negative association between moral identity and antisocial behavior was mediated by anticipated feelings of guilt. Using an experimental design, Study 3 showed that priming moral identity reduced antisocial behavior, and this effect was mediated by moral judgment, and in turn, anticipated guilt. The present findings suggest that athletes with a robust internalized moral self-schema are less likely to engage in antisocial behavior because of the intense feelings of guilt they are likely to experience when they engage in such behavior.

The link between morality and emotion has received little attention in the sport context. To address this issue, we examined whether moral disengagement, empathy, antisocial behaviour and psychopathy were associated with emotional reactions to unpleasant pictures depicting players being hurt or deliberately fouled in a sport context.

Sledging, a form of verbal antisocial behaviour in sport, aims to impair an opponent’s performance. Previously, variations in performance have been attributed to changes in emotion and cognition. To improve our understanding of sledging, the current experiment examined the effects of verbal antisocial behaviour on anger, attention and performance. Participants performed a competitive basketball free-throw shooting task under insult (verbal behaviour designed to offend and upset the performer), distraction (verbal behaviour designed to draw attention away from the task), or control (neutral verbal behaviour) conditions. Performance was assessed by the number of successful baskets and a points-based scoring system, while anger and attention were measured post-task. The insult condition provoked more anger than the control and distraction conditions, whereas the insult and distraction conditions increased distraction and reduced self-focus compared to the control condition. Although verbal antisocial behaviour had no overall direct effect on performance, mediation analysis showed that anger indirectly impaired performance via distraction. Implications for the antisocial behaviour-performance relationship are discussed.

Prosocial and antisocial behaviors take place in sport and correspond to proactive and inhibitive morality. These behaviors could have important consequences not only for the recipient's physical and psychological well being, but also for the quality of the overall sport experience. Thus, understanding the factors that lead to, or inhibit, these behaviors is important. Motivational variables stemming from achievement goal theory and self-determination theory have been associated with both prosocial and antisocial behaviors in sport, highlighting the important role of motivation on moral behavior. Moral disengagement, a strong positive predictor of antisocial behavior, could explain the effects of motivational variables on this behavior. Moral variables are also highly influential with both moral identity and empathy inhibiting antisocial behavior; anticipated guilt has been identified as a mediator in this process, underlining the significance of emotion on moral behavior. Finally, bracketed morality exists in sport, and may be a manifestation of the intergroup bias phenomenon.

This research investigated whether gender moderates, and anger mediates, the relationship between empathy (i.e., perspective taking and empathic concern) and aggressiveness in sport. In Study 1, perspective taking and empathic concern were negatively associated with aggressiveness, and this effect was stronger in women compared to men. In Study 2, perspective taking was a negative predictor of aggressiveness and antisocial behavior in sport, and anger mediated these relationships in women, but not in men. Our findings suggest that empathy and emotion-based strategies targeted at reducing aggressiveness in sport need to be tailored for males and females.

Given the prevalence of antisocial behavior in sport, researchers have begun to explore the role of self-regulatory processes in reducing such conduct. In this research, we examined the effects of moral disengagement on emotion and antisocial sport behavior. Specifically, we investigated whether moral disengagement facilitated antisocial behavior and whether this effect was mediated by anticipated feelings of guilt. Using a cross-sectional design, Study 1 found that the relationship between moral disengagement and antisocial behavior was partially mediated by anticipated guilt. Using an experimental design, Study 2 found that attribution of blame (i.e., moral disengagement mechanism) reduced negative emotional reactions to antisocial behavior and increased reported likelihood to act antisocially; this latter effect was mediated by anticipated guilt. The present findings provide empirical support for Bandura’s (1991) social– cognitive theory of moral thought and action, whereby moral disengagement facilitates antisocial behavior partly because it affects anticipated guilt. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)

Research has yet to examine how authentic and hubristic pride relate to moral behaviour toward teammates and opponents in sport. We investigated the extent to which authentic and hubristic pride are related to prosocial and antisocial behaviour in sport directly and indirectly via moral disengagement. Team sport players (N = 319) completed measures of pride, prosocial and antisocial behaviour, and moral disengagement. Path analyses revealed that authentic pride was directly and positively associated with prosocial behaviour, while hubristic pride was positively associated with antisocial behaviour directly and indirectly via moral disengagement. Hubristic pride was also indirectly associated with prosocial behaviour toward opponents via moral disengagement. Overall, our findings suggest that interventions that promote authentic pride and deter hubristic pride may foster ethical conduct in competitive sport.

Although researchers have investigated underlying correlates of moral behaviour in sport, research into the consequences of teammate moral behaviour on team dynamics has been neglected. To address this issue, we examined whether perceived team moral norms (i.e., prosocial behaviour toward teammate norms; prosocial behaviour toward opponent norms; antisocial behaviour toward teammate norms; antisocial behaviour toward opponent norms) were associated with collective efficacy directly and indirectly via cohesion (i.e., task cohesion and social cohesion). We found that prosocial behaviour toward teammate norms was positively associated with cohesion and collective efficacy. Moreover, prosocial behaviour toward teammate norms was indirectly associated with collective efficacy via task cohesion, but not social cohesion. Antisocial behaviour toward teammate norms was negatively associated with cohesion and collective efficacy. Prosocial and antisocial behaviour toward opponent norms did not predict either cohesion or collective efficacy. Taken together, these findings provide novel evidence for the relationships between moral behaviour and team dynamics, which could have implications on team performance.

Objectives: Though sport is considered a vehicle for facilitating positive youth development, the perceived role of the coach on the holistic psychosocial development of young people in the performance domain (i.e., academy settings) has yet to be investigated. This research aims to address this issue by exploring the key psychosocial attributes performance domain coaches aim to develop in youth athletes, and the strategies they adopt to promote these outcomes. Design: Due to the exploratory nature of this research, a qualitative research design was adopted. Method: Semi-structured face-to-face interviews were conducted mid-season with a purposive sample of 8 (male) high performance academy soccer coaches. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and analysed using thematic analysis. Results: Though the technical development of players was perceived important by performance domain coaches, the desired psychosocial attributes reached beyond on-field success, and predominantly aligned with aspects of positive youth development frameworks including character (e.g., respect), competence (e.g., communication), confidence (e.g., self-belief), connection (e.g., friendships) and additional life skills (e.g., organisation). Coaches expressed a range of approaches were used to promote these desired attributes including positive role modelling, initiative taking, and approaches that conformed to expectations of the club and influential others (e.g., parents). Conclusion: These findings provide novel implications for coach education by underscoring the important role that coaches perceive they play in the holistic psychosocial development of youth athletes. Given the exploratory nature of this study, future research should investigate the effectiveness of different approaches adopted by coaches when developing such psychosocial attributes in youth athletes.

Sport has been promoted as a vehicle for moral character development in young people. However, the coaches’ role in the moral development of youth athletes across both performance (e.g., academy) and participation (e.g., local level) domains has not been investigated. Accordingly, this research explores the perceived role coaches’ play in facilitating moral character development in youth soccer players across performance and participation domains. Semi-structured face-to-face interviews were conducted mid-season with seven performance and seven participation domain coaches of boys’ soccer teams. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and analysed using thematic analysis. Though developing moral character in youths was perceived important by both performance and participation coaches, the rationale and approaches employed differed between domains. Performance domain coaches placed more emphasis on promoting moral character to benefit sports performance (e.g., encouraging respect amongst team mates to improve on-field performance), whereas, participation domain coaches sought to discourage undesirable behaviours (e.g., antisocial acts) and promote desirable (e.g., honesty) behaviours to benefit athletes moral character through sport. Coaches across both domains drew upon previous experiences to inform their approach to player moral character development and expressed several domain-specific challenges (e.g., parental involvement). Moreover, the approaches used by participation coaches were predominantly reactive in nature (e.g., consulting parents following antisocial acts), whereas performance coaches employed more expectation based approaches (e.g., emphasised responsibilities within the club). In sum, our findings suggest that greater emphasis is placed on developing moral character “for sport” in the performance domain and “through sport” in the participation domain. This insight provides further justification for tailored domain-specific coach education programs.

Although research investigating doping in sport is burgeoning, there is still a lack of proxy measures of doping behaviour that have undergone extensive psychometric testing. To address this issue, we modified a previously used measure of doping willingness in sport and tested aspects of validity and reliability across four studies. In Study 1, we provided support for the face and content validity of the items, and then found support for the factor structure of the scale in a sample of athletes (N = 205) using confirmatory factor analysis. In Study 2, we collected data from an independent sample of athletes (N = 236) to provide further evidence for the factor structure of the scale using confirmatory factor analysis as well as provided evidence for concurrent and discriminant validity. In Study 3, a further independent sample of athletes (N = 144) completed the scale and provided support for discriminant and predictive validity of the scale. In Study 4, we collected data from a further independent sample (N = 74) to provide support for the test-retest reliability, and stability of items. Lastly, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the samples across Studies 3 and 4, and the composite sample across all four studies which provided further support for the factor structure of the final 8-item scale. Taken together, these findings provide psychometric support for the scale to be used to measure the willingness of athletes to use banned substances to help facilitate future research investigating doping in sport.

Moral identity and moral disengagement have been linked with doping likelihood. However, experiments testing the temporal direction of these relationships are absent. The authors conducted one cross-sectional and two experimental studies investigating the conjunctive effects of moral identity and moral disengagement on doping likelihood (or intention). Dispositional moral identity was inversely (marginally), and doping moral disengagement, positively, associated with doping intention (Study 1). Manipulating situations to amplify opportunities for moral disengagement increased doping likelihood via anticipated guilt (Study 2). Moreover, dispositional moral identity (Study 2) and inducing moral identity (Study 3) were linked with lower doping likelihood and attenuated the relationship between doping moral disengagement and doping likelihood. However, the suppressing effect of moral identity on doping likelihood was overridden when opportunities for moral disengagement were amplified. These findings support multifaceted antidoping efforts, which include simultaneously enhancing athlete moral identity and personal responsibility alongside reducing social opportunities for moral disengagement.

In this research we examined whether prevalent pre-performance (Study 1) and in-game (Study 2) emotions were associated with cognitive interference (i.e., thoughts of escape, task irrelevant thoughts and performance worries), and whether any effects were moderated by reappraisal and self-confidence. In Study 1, we found team sport players’ pre-performance anxiety positively, and excitement negatively, predicted cognitive interference during a competitive match. However, no moderating effects for reappraisal or confidence were revealed. In Study 2, we found that badminton players’ in-game anxiety, dejection and happiness positively predicted, whereas excitement negatively predicted, cognitive interference during a competitive match. Moreover, reappraisal and confidence moderated the relationships for excitement and happiness with task irrelevant thoughts. Our findings underscore the role that pre-performance and in-game emotions can play on athletes thought processing during sport performance, as well as highlight the importance of considering self-confidence and reappraisal on the role of in-game emotions on cognitive interference.

Global warming and the globalisation of sport has increased the prevalence of sports competitions being held in hot environments. However, there is currently limited research investigating the impact of the heat on soccer-specific decision-making skills during exercise reflective of the physical demands of match-play. Therefore, the effects of heat exposure on physical and soccer-specific decision-making performance, biological markers (i.e., metanephrines), appraisal (i.e., challenge vs. threat) and affective states, during prolonged high-intensity intermittent exercise were investigated. Nine well-trained male soccer players completed a 92-min cycling intermittent sprint protocol (CISP), whilst simultaneously responding to a series of soccer-specific decision-making trials at various time points, in two temperature conditions: hot (32°C, 50%rh) and temperate (18°C, 50%rh). Results showed that decision-making score (p = .030) was impaired in the hot compared to the temperate condition. There was a reduced workload in the second half during the hot condition (p = .016), which coincided with a heightened threat state (p = .007) and more unpleasant feelings (p = .008) experienced in the hot, compared to temperate, condition. Furthermore, plasma normetanephrine (NMET) was higher at half-time (p = .012) and post-CISP (p ≤ .001). Also, plasma metanephrine (MET) was higher post-CISP (p = .009) in the hot compared to temperate condition, reflecting a heightened stress response. Our findings highlight the need for practitioners to consider the detrimental effects heat exposure can have on both physical and decision-making performance when looking to facilitate performance in hot conditions.

Tyrosine has been proposed to potentially provide ergogenic benefits to cognitive and physical performance in physiologically demanding environments. However research into its effectiveness on cognitive and physical performance during exercise in the heat has revealed mixed findings. This study examined the effects of a commonly employed dosage of tyrosine supplementation on soccer players’ physical and decision-making performance, cognitive appraisal, and affective states, during prolonged high-intensity intermittent exercise in hot conditions. Eight trained male soccer players completed a 92-minute high-intensity intermittent cycling sprint protocol whilst responding to soccer-specific decision-making tasks at various time points in 32°C (50%rh), in two counterbalanced conditions; tyrosine (150mg.kg-1) and placebo. No differences were found for peak power output (p = .486; 715 ± 98W vs 724 ± 98W, respectively), decision-making (p = .627; 86.9 ± 10.7% vs 88.6 ± 7.0%, respectively), cognitive appraisal (p = .693, 0.90 ± 0.42 vs 0.88 ± 0.39, respectively) nor affective states (p = .918; 1.15 ± 1.55 vs 1.14 ± 1.70, respectively) between tyrosine and placebo conditions. Also, no condition by time interaction effects were noted for these outcomes. In sum, tyrosine supplementation was ineffective for facilitating prolonged intermittent sprint (self-paced) activity, soccer-specific decision-making, and in alleviating perceptual strain, for soccer players’ exercising in the heat. However, future research may wish to consider alternative approaches for tyrosine supplementation (e.g., timing, dosage) or induce heightened physiological strain to extend on these findings.

Purpose: Research has identified a range of intrapersonal variables associated with moral behaviours in sport. However, research investigating how perfectionism and burnout are associated with prosocial and antisocial behaviour toward teammates and opponents in sport has received scant attention. In the present study, we addressed this issue by examining whether perfectionism was associated with prosocial and antisocial behaviour in sport directly and indirectly via burnout and moral disengagement. Method: A total of 312 team sport players completed validated measures for each variable. Results: Path analyses revealed that perfectionistic concerns had a negative relationship with prosocial behaviour toward teammates, and an indirect positive association with antisocial behaviour toward both teammates and opponents via being positively associated with burnout, which in turn, was positively associated with moral disengagement. In contrast, perfectionistic strivings had a positive association with prosocial behaviour toward teammates, and an indirect positive association with antisocial behaviour toward teammates and opponents via moral disengagement. Conclusion: Our findings offer new insights about how perfectionism and burnout are associated with prosocial and antisocial behaviour in sport as well as highlight the need to consider perfectionistic tendencies and approaches to help reduce burnout and moral disengagement in the regulation of antisocial behaviour in sport.

This study investigated the effects of heat exposure on physical and cognitive performance during an intermittent exercise protocol so as to reflect the incremental fatigue experienced during team sports. Twelve well-trained male team sport players completed an 80-minute cycling intermittent sprint protocol (CISP), alongside computerized vigilance and congruent (i.e., simple) and incongruent (i.e., complex) Stroop tasks of cognitive functioning, in two counterbalanced temperature conditions; hot (32°C[50%rh]) and control (18°C[50%rh]). Incongruent Stroop accuracy declined over time (p = .002), specifically in the second (Mdiff = -3.75, SD = 0.90%, p = .009) and third (Mdiff = -4.58, SD = 1.22%, p = .019) quarters compared to the first quarter of the CISP; but there were no differences between temperature conditions. Congruent Stroop reaction time (RT) was quicker in the second quarter of exercise in the hot condition (M = 561.99, SD = 112.93 ms) compared to the control condition (M=617.80, SD = 139.71 ms; p = .022), but no differences were found for congruent Stroop accuracy nor vigilance measures. Additionally, peak power output was lower during the third quarter of the CISP in the hot condition (M = 861.31, SD = 105.20 W) compared to the control condition (M = 900.68, SD = 114.84 W; p < .001). Plasma normetanephrine and metanephrine concentrations increased from pre- to post-CISP (Mdiff = +616.90, SD = 306.99, p < .001; and Mdiff = +151.23, SD = 130.32, p = .002, respectively), with a marginal interaction suggesting a higher normetanephrine increase from pre- to post-CISP in the hot versus the control condition (p = .070). Our findings suggest that accuracy for more complex decisions suffered during prolonged high-intensity intermittent exercise, perhaps due to exercise-induced catecholamine increases. Athletes may have also reduced physical effort under increased heat exposure, indicating how cognitive performance may be sustained in physically demanding environments.

To date, no review has focused specifically on the potential modulating role of environmental temperature on the effects of exercise on cognitive function. Despite this, a range of occupations and performance contexts exist (e.g., military personnel, emergency services, sport) where the maintenance of cognitive function in environmentally challenging environments is crucial. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to evaluate the experimental research investigating how manipulating environmental temperature influenced the effects of acute bouts exercise on cognitive functioning from pre-to-post exercise, or during exercise. Studies to be included were assessed by two authors reviewing title, abstract, and then full-text. From the searches conducted, twenty articles were identified which met the inclusion criteria. For the purpose of this review, exercise involved in each study was categorised into low, moderate, and vigorous dosages (dependent on intensity and duration). The results indicate that moderate dosages of exercise help stimulate improved cognitive performance from pre-to-post exercise in temperate conditions, where cold exposure appears to blunt these effects. In addition, hot environments led to cognitive decrements during and post exercise which were often identified in studies that implemented prolonged moderate or vigorous exercise protocols. Therefore, suggesting a combination of heightened physiological strain from increased dose of exercise, alongside heat exposure, can be detrimental to optimal cognitive functioning, whereby executive functioning tasks appeared to be most affected. The findings from this systematic review highlight the potential modulating role of environmental temperature on the effects of exercise on cognitive function. Thus, highlighting the importance of considering the role of environmental temperature for individuals either exercising to elicit desired cognitive benefits or for those involved in physically demanding occupations or performance domains.

Cross-sectional studies in younger adults have demonstrated a positive association between energy intake (EI) and fat-free mass (FFM), with this relationship seemingly mediated by resting metabolic rate (RMR). Establishing a causal effect longitudinally would be prudent in older adults suffering from loss of appetite. We investigated the effects of FFM on RMR, appetite and EI in 39 healthy older adults (age: 66 ± 4 years, BMI: 25.1 ± 3.5 kg·m2) assigned to either 12-week resistance training + protein supplementation group (RT + PRO) or control group (CON). Body composition, subjective appetite, leptin, insulin, RMR and laboratory-measured ad libitum EI were measured at baseline, weeks 6 and 12 of the intervention, while daily EI at baseline and week 12. FFM (+1.2 kg; p = 0.002), postprandial subjective appetite (+8 mm; p = 0.027), ad libitum EI (+119 kcal; p = 0.012) and daily EI (+133 kcal; p = 0.010) increased from baseline to week 12 in the RT + PRO. RMR, fasted subjective appetite, leptin and insulin concentrations remained unchanged (all p > 0.05). The increases ad libitum EI correlated with increases in FFM (r = 0.527, p = 0.001), with 54% of the change in EI attributed to FFM changes. In conclusion, FFM increases were associated with an increased ad libitum EI and postprandial appetite in older adults.

This study investigated whether motivational climate was associated with prosocial and antisocial behavior in youth athletes directly and indirectly via social support (i.e., emotional and esteem support), perspective taking, and moral disengagement. Two-hundred and seventy-five youth team sport players (156 boys; 119 girls) aged 11 to 16 years completed questionnaires assessing the study variables. Structural equation modelling revealed that mastery climate was positively associated with prosocial teammate behavior both directly and indirectly via social support. Mastery climate was also indirectly associated with prosocial opponent behavior via social support and perspective taking. Mastery climate was negatively associated with antisocial behavior towards opponents and teammates indirectly via social support, perspective taking, and moral disengagement. Performance climate was positively associated with antisocial behavior towards teammates directly and indirectly via moral disengagement: It was also indirectly associated with antisocial behavior towards opponents via moral disengagement. Our findings extend understanding about the variables that might explain relationships between motivational climate and moral conduct in youth athletes. Implications for sport practitioners are considered, especially in relation to approaches that could help foster moral character in young people through sport.

Despite research highlighting mindfulness as a potential protective factor against stress, no research has investigated its efficacy for life-stress management in student-athletes. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the five facets of dispositional mindfulness influence stress in student-athletes, and whether this is mediated by coping effectiveness. Two hundred and twelve university student-athletes completed validated measures of dispositional mindfulness, student-athlete stress and coping effectiveness to a recent sport related stressor at a time when they were balancing both academic and competitive sport demands. Regression analyses revealed that the acting with awareness and non-judging facets of mindfulness negatively predicted, whereas the observing facet of mindfulness positively predicted, student-athlete stress. Importantly, mediation analyses revealed that coping effectiveness mediated these effects. Findings suggest that enhancing student-athletes ability to act with awareness and non-judge their inner experience can potentially suppress stress via enhancing their perceived coping effectiveness. However, practitioners may need to be cautious about enhancing the observing facet of mindfulness to regulate stress in student-athletes. Future studies should adopt experimental and intervention based designs to confirm the direction of these effects.

Objectives: Substance use among university student-athlete populations is a growing concern but research addressing this issue is primarily confined to the US. Also, the exposure of witnessing other student-athletes using substances and how student-athletes may respond when witnessing other athletes taking substances across countries and gender is unknown. This research aimed to address these issues. Design: A cross-sectional design was employed. Method: Student-athletes from the US (N = 208), UK (N = 201) and Canada (N = 159) completed measures of reported substance use, witnessing substance use, and (anticipated) responses to addressing peers’ substance use. Results: Chi-square and logistic regression analyses revealed that country and gender were associated with various outcomes. Key findings include that differences in substance use as a function of country was largely substance-specific, and a higher proportion of men than women reported using most supplements apart from vitamins and minerals, and dietary based supplements. A higher proportion of athletes in Canada and USA reported they would “confront the individual” if they witnessed a peer taking dietary supplements, prescription medication and banned appearance and performance enhancing substances than in UK. Also, a higher proportion of women than men reported they would “report to someone else” (e.g., coach, sport governing body) if they witnessed peers taking substances. Conclusion: Although a convenience sample from nine universities across the three countries participated in this research, our findings provide initial evidence for the role of gender and country in relation to athletes’ substance use behaviors and anticipated responses to addressing substance use. These findings underline the importance of conducting context-specific and cross-national research to help facilitate tailored substance use education for student-athletes.

The role of dispositional mindfulness on stress in student-athletes and factors that mediate this relationship has yet to be examined. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between the facets of mindfulness and life stress in student-athletes and whether these relationships are mediated through coping effectiveness and decision rumination. Participants were 202 student-athletes who completed validated measures of dispositional mindfulness, student-athlete life stress, decision rumination and coping effectiveness in sport. Results indicated that the acting with awareness and non-judging facets of mindfulness were negative predictors of life stress, whereas the observe facet was a positive predictor of life stress. Mediation analyses revealed that these relationships were mediated through coping effectiveness and decision rumination. Findings provide new insight into the role dispositional mindfulness plays on student-athlete perceptions of life stress and implications for practitioners are discussed.

Although trait perfectionism has been related to doping attitudes in athletes, research investigating variables that could account for relationships between perfectionism and doping outcomes has received scant attention. Consequently, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether perfectionism was related to doping willingness directly and indirectly via moral disengagement. We recruited a sample of 204 student athletes (M age = 19.12 years, SD = 1.17, n = 81 females - 39.70%) who completed measures of perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, doping moral disengagement, and doping willingness. Multiple regression analyses revealed a significant positive relationship between perfectionistic concerns and doping willingness (β = .13, p < .05) and a nonsignificant relationship between perfectionistic strivings and doping willingness (β = −.01, p > .05). Moreover, bias-corrected bootstrapped indirect effects revealed that doping moral disengagement mediated the relationship between perfectionistic concerns and doping willingness (ab = .12; 95% CI = .02 to .21). The findings suggest that the relationship between perfectionistic concerns and doping extends beyond attitudes – to doping willingness – and the propensity to morally disengage explains why this is the case.