Professor Rachel Armitage

We are delighted to publish the third in the series of our ‘Faithfull Papers’ all about the impact of our Family and Friends Forum. Launched in 2018, the forum is a space for family members and friends of people who have been viewing sexual images of children or sexually communicating with a child online. The report is based on an evaluation led by Professor Rachel Armitage (University of Huddersfield) to better understand the experience of, and explore the impact on, the family and friends of people who have offended online. Professor Armitage’s evaluation analysed the effectiveness of the forum which is visited by around 40,000 people every year and nearly 2,200 people have posted on the forum.

Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) represents a multi-faceted approach to crime reduction that draws upon theories from urban design, psychology and criminology. Yet there remains a lack of clarity regarding CPTED’s definition and scope. CPTED has been defined by, amongst others Crowe (Crime prevention through environmental design: applications of architectural design and space management concepts, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 2000), Ekblom (Eur J Crim Policy Res 17:7-28, 2011) and Armitage (Crime prevention through housing design: policy and practice, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 2013), and the principles upon which it is based have seen even greater discrepancy. Conscious that these principles have primarily been defined by academics and policy-makers, this research aims to rectify this imbalance. A sample of 22 incarcerated prolific burglars from three prisons (England), were asked to describe their response to 16 images of residential housing. The results confirm that the design of residential housing influences burglar decision making, but that the principles of CPTED should be re-examined, with surveillance, and physical security a clear deterrent, yet management and maintenance and defensible space not considered as important in offender decision making.

The aim of the paper is to illustrate how the housing system in the United Kingdom (UK) has contributed to creating vulnerabilities during the COVID-19 pandemic. Drawing on the concept of ontological security we look at how living with housing insecurity whilst enduring poor housing conditions has impacted the lives of those living in households. The paper draws on semi-structured interviews with 50 residents and 8 housing professionals. The findings outline the grinding impact of the pandemic on the ontological security of residents and the coping strategies adopted by a wider range of households who are now increasingly vulnerable. A number of people went into lockdown in vulnerable situations, experiencing deep inequalities and living in poorly maintained homes. This has weakened the ontological security experienced by many households. These represent significant failings of the housing system and housing policy impacting on the health and wellbeing of a wider cohort of people creating additional vulnerabilities.

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) is an approach to crime reduction that involves the design, build and future management of places and spaces according to five key principles: surveillance, defensible space, physical security, movement control, and management and maintenance. Grounded in the Opportunity Theories of crime, CPTED focuses upon reducing opportunities for offenders—largely, increasing perceived risk and reducing likely rewards. Focusing upon the application of CPTED to residential housing within the UK, and its merit as a burglary reduction measure, this chapter presents an overview of the principles of CPTED alongside associated evidence of effectiveness and an overview of the implementation of CPTED within planning and policing policy and practice, including the UK’s Secured by Design (SBD) award scheme. The chapter presents the results of a recent systematic review of nine studies, concluding that the available evidence on the effectiveness of SBD shows a statistically significant overall burglary reduction effect, equating to 53% fewer burglaries than the non-SBD control group. The chapter concludes with a suggested re-orientation of CPTED and its focus. Presenting findings from a study of 22 incarcerated burglars, the research suggests that there may be merit in re-orienting CPTED’s focus to incorporate ‘designing in’ pro-social attachments to place, as opposed to limiting attention on the principle of ‘simply designing out’ illegal behaviour.

Although urbanisation and urban land limitations are prevalent, residential complexes are seldom discussed as a means of compartmentalising social interactions and contributing to residents’ social interactions. Due to the spatial orientation of social interactions, semi-public spaces in these buildings are unable to host residents’ interactions due to a lack of appropriate arrangements/establishment of tangible and visible objects. The influential components, however, have rarely been identified in residential complexes. To fill this gap, using the theory of human territoriality, the current study explores the influential physical components of human territorialities in semi-public spaces in four residential complexes and investigates whether a significant relationship exists between human territorialities’ physical components and social interactions. This study collected data from 264 residents of four residential complexes with different spatial configuration layouts. Pearson correlation and Spearman’s rank correlation are used to evaluate linear and monotonic relationships between study variables. The correlation between spatial configurations of physical components and residents’ interactions confirms that spatial configurations influence residents’ use of semi-public spaces. Social interaction can, therefore, be improved through green space, brightness, accessibility, and furniture in common areas. The findings prove that residential complexes with clustered arrangements have not performed well in creating socialinteraction due to the lack of defined spaces and territories for people, but multi-core, mixed, and linear complexes that define several open and semi-open spaces have been more successful in the amount of social interaction of residents. This study is one of the first to identify the influential components using the integration of residents’ perceptions and spatial configuration.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) empower data-driven urban crime analysis, fostering sustainable and inclusive cities. This systematic review synthesizes 293 studies from 2000 to 2023, examining GIS applications in spatial analysis, crime prevention, socioeconomic influences, and technology integration, aligned with United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Key trends include AI-driven predictive policing, real-time monitoring via IoT and Remote Sensing, and Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) to deter crime through urban planning. Machine learning enhances hotspot mapping precision, integrating diverse data like social media and demographics, yet challenges persist in data quality, ethical AI use, and hyperlocal analysis. Amid evolving crime dynamics driven by inequality and urbanization, GIS supports evidence-based policies to reduce violence and exclusion. Community engagement ensures ethical technology deployment, prioritizing equity. This review highlights GIS’s transformative potential in addressing research gaps and advancing safer urban futures, offering a comprehensive reference for researchers and policymakers.

This briefing note focuses upon the impact of levels of connectivity and through-movement (within residential housing developments) on levels of crime and anti-social behaviour (ASB). The note is one of a series of themed papers which reports the findings from a collaborative project funded by the Home Office and managed by the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE). The project set out to strengthen and update the evidence base on the impact of residential design on a range of crime types textendash with a specific focus on housing developments acclaimed for their innovative design and award winning architecture. It should be highlighted that although this briefing note is designed as a summary document, the findings and recommendations are based upon a seven month project conducted by a consortium of universities including experts within the field of designing out crime, statistical modelling, urban design and Geographical Information Systems (GIS). The project was overseen by an expert Steering Group who ensured that the research was conducted to the required standards in terms of independence and methodological rigour.

This chapter reviews the progress made within the field of product design and crime prevention and suggests that although much has been discussed, little has made the transition from research to policy or practice. Whist accepting that this weakness can be explained in part through limited funding and changes in personnel within key organisations, it is suggested that the central difficulty has been a lack of leadership from a central organisation, a duplication of effort and a reluctance to implement ideas which may seem unfeasible, unrealistic or unachievable. As well as reviewing the progress made within this field, this chapter proposes a system to measure the risk of theft of electronic products as a means of motivating developers to design secure products and encouraging consumers to demand secure products. Building upon the gains made within the fields of the built environment, food standards and environmental protection, this chapter proposes a two-tiered system to allow manufacturers to market their products as ’secure’ and consumers to easily identify a product’s risk of theft. The first system would be a voluntary accreditation scheme and associated logo which would allow products meeting the required standards to be marketed as a ’Secure Product’. The second proposal, aimed at allowing consumers to readily identify the risk of theft of electronic products, would be the introduction of a signposting ’traffic light’ system which assigns two traffic light colours to each product textendash the first would identify the product’s vulnerability to theft (measured using a crime risk assessment mechanism), the second would identify the product’s existing levels of security. The chapter concludes by suggesting that it is time for those working within the field of product design and crime prevention to be bold and push forward proposals to make research a reality.

Recent national passenger surveys have shown that satisfaction associated with personal security on the railways in Great Britain has been consistently lower than the overall satisfaction level of rail passengers. To address these concerns, and to improve personal security on the railways, the industry has implemented various security measures and schemes. However, in the absence of a value or a set of values to robustly quantify such measures, making a case for investment becomes very difficult. The Rail Personal Security Group asked RSSB to address this knowledge gap. To this end, the project has evaluated the Secure Station and Park Mark schemes implemented by the industry to improve personal security. The aims of the research, which have been fulfilled, were to establish whether the schemes are fulfilling their objectives and to estimate the value of the benefits accrued from their introduction. The project has quantified the schemes’ benefits through increased patronage and crime reduction, as well as identifying wider social and economic benefits. Additionally, the research has delivered a well developed and informed framework to assess the societal and economic benefits of investing in personal security, as well as recommendations on the effectiveness of the schemes. The knowledge gained through this work may be used in the Passenger Demand Forecasting Handbook, the New Approach to Appraisal guidelines; and individual train operator and Network Rail business case frameworks. The outputs will help make better investment and deployment decisions associated with personal security on the railways.

This chapter examines an approach to crime reduction which differs from many others in that it focuses, not on the offender or their reasoning for committing an offence, but upon the environment in which an offence takes place. This approach also differs in its consideration of who should hold responsibility for the reduction of crime, with a focus, not solely upon the traditional criminal justice system agencies, but also upon planners, architects, developers and managers of public space. The approach is based on the presumption that offenders will maximise crime opportunities, and therefore, those opportunities must be avoided (in the first place) or removed (following the emergence of a crime problem). In the 2001 publication ‘Cracking Crime through Design’, Pease introduces the concept of design as a means of reducing crime, but more importantly, the premise that it is the moral responsibility of many different actors and agencies to improve the lives of those who may fall victim to crime, those who live in fear of crime, and (less obviously) those who will, through the presentation of unproblematic opportunities, be tempted into offending. In the case of crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED), it is the planners, designers, developers and architects who risk acting (as Pease paraphrases the poet John Donne) as the gateway to another man’s sin.

This is a summary of a research project undertaken by the University in collaboration with a social housing provider in 2013/14. The project aims were to undertake a pilot study to support the development of a more effective and efficient model for delivering social housing services. The model was specifically in relation to accommodating a more streamlined approach to management practices based on a strategy of positive reinforcement of good tenant behaviour. This was in the context of a strategy to reduce or eradicate cases of Anti Social Behaviour (ASB) amongst the Association’s tenants and allow staff time to be devoted to other work areas. The development of the new model was based upon the vision of the housing provider that introducing rewards and incentives to tenants would promote a culture of positive tenant behaviours.

Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) is a method of reducing crime through the design and manipulation of the built environment. Based upon the New Opportunity Theories of crime, CPTED focuses upon blocking opportunities for criminal behaviour through subtle techniques to maximise informal surveillance, territoriality and guardianship, to minimise through movement and to set standards of physical security that are proportionate to crime risk. This chapter will discuss the principles of CPTED and the theories from which it evolved, before exploring how CPTED is applied internationally in terms of policy, guidance and practice. Examples include Chile, Mexico, and Brazil, as well as countries with more established processes of implementing CPTED within the planning process (England and Wales, Netherlands and Australia). Evidence regarding effectiveness will be presented and consideration will be given to the extent to which principles, practice and procedure can be transferred to different countries and cultures.

Secured by Design (SBD) is a place-based approach to crime reduction that brings together standards of physical security with the broader principles of Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) to set minimum requirements that enable properties to be awarded SBD status. Developed in 1989 in England, SBD is managed by Police Crime Prevention Initiatives and delivered by Designing out Crime Officers (DOCOs), Architectural Liaison Officers (ALOs) and Crime Prevention Design Advisors (CPDAs) located within each police force. Whilst the effectiveness of the scheme has been evaluated, so far studies have drawn only on police recorded or self-reported crime. This study adds offender perceptions to that collection of evaluations. Twenty-two prolific burglars were asked to interpret a series of sixteen images of residential housing. The results confirm that housing design plays a key role in influencing offender decision-making, the risk of surveillance and standards of physical security being primary deterrents. The findings highlight areas for improvement within the scheme, particularly relating to measures based upon the concepts of defensible space and management and maintenance

‘Problem-oriented policing’ (POP) is an approach for improving police effectiveness. In the United Kingdom (UK), it is also referred to as ‘problem-oriented partnerships’ or ‘problem solving policing’. Problem-solving policing calls for the police to focus not on individual incidents but on problems - defined as recurrent clusters of related incidents that affect the community. It advocates a structured process whereby the police (1) systematically identify persistent problems, (2) undertake in-depth analysis to determine the conditions giving rise to these problems, (3) devise and implement tailored responses and (4) work out if the chosen responses were effective. At its simplest, POP outlines a method for dealing with localised problems. In its most general sense, it outlines an approach for how the police operate.Problem-solving has been widely adopted by police forces in the UK and internationally.Successive reviews, case studies and experiments have shown POP to be an effective way of reducing crime and disorder. Yet despite extensive evidence demonstrating the effectiveness of problem-solving, research also identifies recurrent challenges both in the implementation and practice of a problem-oriented approach. Consequently, POP has not become a persistent feature of policing in the UK.In 2017, South Yorkshire Police received a £6.35 million grant from the Home Office Police Transformation Fund (PTF). The grant was to support the delivery of a three-year national project (2018-2020) intended to reduce demand on the police service by promoting,facilitating and advancing problem-solving among police and partner agencies in England and Wales. The project was named the Problem Solving and Demand Reduction Programme(hereafter referred to as the PSDRP). This report presents the findings of a mixed methods study undertaken in support of the PSDRP. The purpose of the study was threefold:To determine the extent, nature, patterns and quality of police problem-solving in Englandand WalesTo identify obstacles and enablers to the implementation, spread and practice ofproblem-solvingTo elucidate the experiences and perspectives of those doing problem-solving.

This briefing note is one of a series of themed papers which reports the findings from a collaborative project funded by the Home Office and managed by the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE). This note focuses upon the impact of the design and layout of car parking on crime and anti-social behaviour (ASB) within residential housing. The project set out to strengthen and update the evidence base on the impact of residential design on a range of crime types textendash with a specific focus on housing developments acclaimed for their innovative design and award winning architecture. It should be highlighted that although this briefing note is designed as a summary document, the findings and recommendations are based upon a seven month project conducted by a consortium of universities including experts within the field of designing out crime, statistical modelling, urban design and Geographical Information Systems (GIS). The project was overseen by an expert Steering Group who ensured that the research was conducted to the required standards in terms of independence and methodological rigour.

Preventing crime is a core mission of the police service. The effectiveness of routine and systematic problem-solving to prevent crime has long-been established. It is common-sense and a way to reduce demand whilst better serving the public. Within the police service itself, who needs to be involved in problem-solving? Who needs this guide? The short answer is everyone.

This report documents the findings and recommendations from the Independent Review (IR) of the Managed Approach (‘MA’) to on-street sex working in Leeds.

The study ‘Lockdown, Rundown, Breakdown’ was rapidly mobilised in May 2020 in response to the UK national lockdown, which was implemented in March 2020 as a means of containing the spread of COVID-19. It draws on the analysis of visual representations and semi-structured interviews with 50 residents living in poor-quality accommodation and eight professionals in the North of England, UK. The fieldwork concluded in July 2020, and the findings reflect the concerns, impacts and lived experiences of households living through the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown. The research had the following objectives:1. To document the day-to-day lived experiences of the lockdown of people living in poor-quality accommodation in the private rented and owner-occupied sectors.2. To identify coping strategies, associated issues and concerns of people living in those housing situations (e.g. employment, welfare, wellbeing, health and care).3. To identify whether and in what ways poor-quality accommodation has impacted on people’s experiences of the lockdown.4. To ascertain the views and experiences of those working to support people in their homes from organisations in the statutory and community and voluntary sectors.

The non-offending partners (NOPs) of individuals who have committed sexual offences experience significant repercussions following the discovery of their partners’ crimes (Serin, 2018). However, there is a scarcity of research investigating NOPs’ experiences (Rapp, 2011). Initial research into NOPs focused on mothers whose children had been abused in cases of father–daughter incest (Cahalane & Duff, 2018), and NOPs were frequently held responsible for their partners’ sexual transgressions (Azzopardi et al., 2018). These early mother blaming narratives within academia have since been replaced by a focus on what role NOPs can play in facilitating desistance and preventing sexual crimes (Shannon et al., 2013).

Out of the tragedy of the COVID-19 pandemic there is an opportunity to foster renewed interest in health across various policy agendas, including greater consideration of health at the centre of future housing and the [re]development of places such as towns and cities. However, the development of built environments is often divorced from the work of health professionals. This paper is aimed mainly at stakeholders, mainly across West Yorkshire, working at the intersections of health and built environments. It provides an overview of the policy context and key policy documents, examines the main aspects of the available evidence, identifies examples of best practice and presents a number of recommendations. Its aim is to demystify the built environment in order to help health professionals understand how their work can have an instrumental role in building back healthier after the pandemic. It is hoped the paper will also be of use to those in housing and planning to help identify their foundational role in the health system.

Living in Fear is a follow up to 2020 research Lockdown, Rundown, Breakdown, which looked at the impact of the pandemic on people living in poor quality housing. The University of Huddersfield reached out to residents they last spoke to at the peak of the pandemic, who live in private rented accommodation, or are owner occupiers. They find many participants are now ‘living in fear’ after being hit hard by the cost-of-living crisis. Soaring energy prices have had a big impact, and many people continue to live in homes with hazards. While owner occupiers feel they have some hope of resolving the problems, many private renters feel trapped in unsuitable homes. Some spoke about fear of reprisals, such as rent hikes or evictions, if they report repairs. We’re backing a three-point plan, set out in the report, to resolve the crisis. - The speedy progress of the Renters’ Reform Bill to end no-fault evictions - Local Housing Allowance levels must continue to keep pace with spiralling rents - New support with energy bills, including a ‘social tariff’ to help people meet soaring costs of gas and electricity.

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) is an approach to crime reduction that seeks to reduce perceived opportunities for crime through the design and management of the built or, less often, the natural environment. It is based on a set of principles, which can be applied as a guide to the design and construction of buildings, as well as the organization of spaces around them. Because CPTED provides a guide rather than a rigid specification, with a range of possible realizations, design compliance with its principles is often recognized through an award scheme, such as Secured by Design (SBD) in the United Kingdom and the Police Label Secured Housing in the Netherlands. Research has consistently demonstrated that CPTED is an effective crime reduction approach—reducing crime, alleviating the fear of crime, and enhancing feelings of safety. Its increasing recognition within planning policy reflects a growing acknowledgment of efficacy.

This book presents a comprehensive review of the impact of residential design on crime focusing upon research, policy and practice both in the UK and internationally, appealing to both academics and practitioners within the fields of crime prevention, urban planning and architecture.

The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted and transformed the lives of many people across the globe. An accurate understanding of the nature of these changes will take a number of years to materialize. What is clear, however, is the way housing has been elevated by the pandemic, not only in the way housing has been utilized by governments mandating populations to remain in their homes, but also in the role our homes play in our lives. It is clear that experiences of lockdown, and associated measures, will have been acutely influenced by housing. In particular, there will be distinct differences in experiences of lockdown depending on the availability of safe, secure, and decent accommodation. It is evident that people most at risk of experiencing the worst impacts of the pandemic, and the steps taken to mitigate the spread of the virus, are those already living with some form of pre-existing vulnerability, inequality, or precarity; in particular those in receipt of benefits, living with long-term conditions, in precarious employment, or those living in insecure housing or with poor housing conditions. As such, it is clear the experiences of people affected by multiple vulnerabilities should be documented and exposed (Gurney, 2020; Holmes et al, 2020; see also Tunstall, Chapter Two; Warnock, Chapter Twelve; Perry et al, Chapter Thirteen). This chapter presents key findings from new rapid empirical research undertaken within the UK. Drawing on interviews with residents and professionals, we present the concerns, impacts, and lived experiences of respondents dealing with poor-quality housing.

This chapter focuses on how housing inequalities have been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. It draws on interviews with households living in poor-quality housing and investigates how pre-existing housing conditions amplify residents’ experiences of that housing. It also covers physical characteristics of dwellings, such as damp and heating problems, and social aspects that include dealing with landlords and not enough space. The chapter highlights mental health challenges that are amplified by poor-quality housing, which are largely caused by people spending most of their time at home with substandard conditions that are ever-present in their lives. It highlights key findings from the new rapid empirical research undertaken within the UK, presenting the concerns, impacts, and lived experiences of both residents and professionals dealing with poor-quality housing.

This paper reports on a study conducted into the factors, other than location, which influence homebuyers to purchase a particular property. The study was prompted by a consistent failure over time by private housing developers to embrace the principles of the Association of Chief Police Officers ’Secured By Design’ (SBD) award scheme, or even the major elements of that scheme, to ensure parity of security with newly built social housing. Many private housing developers have expressed the view, without supporting evidence, that they avoid building to SBD standards because the majority of house buyers regard a property with enhanced security as one that has reduced appeal. It has been these developers’ expressed opinion that purchasers equate enhanced security with high-crime areas, and would therefore be turned off by rather than attracted to an SBD property. Without evidence to the contrary, developers have had little incentive to adapt their building practices, and individuals concerned with crime reduction have been unable to offer a convincing argument for them to do so.

The police are often perceived as society’s safety net: constantly accessible, largely free at the point of delivery, and able to tackle all manner of crises. In recent years, spiralling demand coupled with reducing resources has put the police under considerable strain. To manage this challenge, whilst remaining true to a public service ethos, we must work differently. To this end, the case for prevention is compelling, both morally and economically as a means to reduce harm and police demand. However, whilst practitioners and academics worldwide find that a problem-solving methodology is an effective way to deliver preventive policing, they also point out that systematic implementation is difficult to achieve. What you will find in this document is a summary of all that is known about establishing and maintaining problem-solving within a police organisation. It provides relevant and practical information to assist you in these challenging times.

Alleys (snickets, ginnels, backways) are particularly common in British industrial cities and were originally designed to allow access to the rear of properties by coalmen and refuse collectors. Although alleys are still useful to allow residents access to the rear of their property without walking through the house, they also provide a means of entry and escape for offenders. Alley-gating is a crime reduction measure that involves the installation of a lockable gate across an alley, preventing access for anyone who does not have a key. This paper presents the findings of a study undertaken to examine the sustainability of Liverpoool s Alley-gating scheme (a robust evaluation of Liverpool s scheme was undertaken in 2002 see Young et al, 2003; Bowers et al, 2004). It specifically reports on the results of a residents survey undertaken in gated and nongated areas. The findings are compared with those from 2002. The results suggest that the positive impacts on perceptions of crime and anti-social behaviour, and experience of crime and anti-social behaviour have been maintained over a four year period in Liverpool.

This study examines the effectiveness of a closed circuit television (CCTV) system installed in Burnley, Lancashire in northwest England. It considers both the outcomes and mechanisms through which they were brought about. Three areas are identified:

The extent of CCTV coverage and the government’s funding of new systems has increased dramatically over the last decade. There is very little substantive research evidence, however, to suggest that CCTV works. This briefing note has been written to inform community safety practitioners about recent research into the effectiveness of CCTV, which suggests that it is not always as successful at reducing crime as it is claimed to be.

Tackling anti-social behaviour is high on the agenda of both national government and local agencies. Local partnerships, together with local communities, have been encouraged to identify local problems, develop strategies and action plans, and evaluate their interventions to inform future practice. This briefing highlights examples of work carried out by agencies from across the country that have been successful in tackling anti-social behaviour.

Secured by Design (SBD) is an award scheme, managed by the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) and supported by the Home Office, which aims to encourage house developers to design homes so as to minimise the crime opportunities which they present. Unlike many crime reduction measures, particularly those addressing the behaviour of offenders or potential offenders, the SBD initiative is proactive - the aim being to intervene prior to a crime problem emerging as opposed to reacting after the event. The implementation of SBD requirest he co-operation of a variety of agenciesf rom police and local authorities to architects and housing developers,and the mechanisms through which it aims to reduce crime have the potential to impact upon the victim, the offender and the location. Recent legislation,in the form of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 and the Human Rights Act 1998, have placedcrime reduction on the agenda of many agencies for whom the issue had historically been of little importance. In the current climate of multi-agency working, initiatives such as SBD have the potential to flourish, but do they actually impact upon crime, disorder and the fear of crime, and are they being used to their maximum potential? This thesis addresses the past (history), present (current practice) and future (potential refinements) of SBD. How did planning become encapsulated in to criminology?Does SBD reduce crime, disorder and the fear of crime?What are the current weaknesses within SBD and how can the initiative be improved? The findings presented within the thesis reveal that properties built to the SBD standard experience lower levels of crime (and their resident’s lower levels of fear of crime) than Non-SBD estates matched according to age, housing tenure, location and environmental factors. Whilst the difference in crime rates is not strongly statistically significant, the improving performance of the scheme suggests that a more recent sample would reveal a stronger relationship between SBD status and crime levels. Having established that SBD estates confer a crime reduction advantage the thesis focuses upon identifying how the scheme can be improved as well as the enablers and constraints which exist for those within the social and private sector in deciding whether (or not) to build to the SBD standard. Areas of improvement include ensuring that the scheme implements its own principles, incorporating repeat victimisation packages in to its standards and considering the threat to revoke the scheme for estates found failing to maintain the SBD standards. Levers to encourage social and private sector developers to build to the SBD standard include enhanced funding from the Housing Corporation, the appeal of additional security for homebuyers and the savings incurred through reduced levels of crime and disorder. Continuing its improvement orientation, the thesis presents a risk assessment mechanism to be used by crime reduction practitioners as a means of idenffying which properties will become vulnerable to crime if built (therefore allowing them to challenge planning applications)or in the case of properties already developed, allowing resources to be directed towards properties at most risk. The environmental factors which emerge as associated with elevated crime levels (and therefore score highly on the checklist presented)suggest that higher levels of movement past a property are generally associated with higher levels of risk. Thus in the somewhat heated debate about the role of permeability in enabling crime, the general thrust of the data suggests that high permeability (as proxied by the presence footpaths, levels of pedestrian and vehicular movement and road network) is indeed associated with higher levels of crime.

A Word about Gates Alleys (snickets, ginnels, backways) are particularly common in British industrial cities and were originally designed to allow access to the rear of properties by coalmen and refuse collectors. Although many alleys are no longer used for their original purpose, they are still useful to allow residents to access the rear of their properties without walking through their house. This can be particularly helpful when gardening or carrying out DIY. Alley-gating involves the installation of lockable gates across these alleys, preventing access to the alley for those without a key. Although predominantly a crime reduction measure, alley-gating has the potential to do more than reduce crime; it can increase community confidence, improve the aesthetic appearance of an area, re-invigorate schemes such as Residents’ Associations and Neighbourhood Watch and reduce levels of worry and fear about crime and anti-social behaviour. Although it has the potential to achieve more than crime reduction, it should be stressed that alley-gating is a crime reduction measure, which is targeted at alleys which are experiencing high levels of crime and anti-social behaviour, or are being used to facilitate crime and disorder. It is not designed to limit freedom or constrain legitimate access. Although alley-gating does involve the installation of lockable gates, it is important that readers do not confuse alley-gating with gated communities. Alley-gating simply closes off the rear or side of properties for those without legitimate access. It does not create a closed community and people can still access the rest of the neighbourhood without using the alley. Alley-gates are rarely installed in alleys which are currently used as through routes, and where this is the case, detailed consideration is given towards the impact on existing users. Although gated communities involve the use of similar security measures, they are very different. Gated communities involve closing whole neighbourhoods to non-residents immediately creating a ’them’ and ’us’. In gated communities non-residents are excluded from large spaces which had previously been public open spaces simply because they do not live within the community.

This chapter highlights the confusing and contradictory policy and guidance within the field of designing out crime within the built environment and challenges policy makers to address an issue which, as yet, has remained unresolved. Whilst it is accepted that conflicting research will always exist, the current debate surrounding the criminogenic features of permeable design has diverted practitioners’ attention from the immediate task of reducing crime. Having highlighted the current conflict within the UK planning system, the chapter concludes with a detailed analysis of the specific environmental factors which increase a property’s vulnerability to victimisation. This is presented as a simple, usable risk assessment mechanism to be used by crime reduction practitioners as a means of identifying which properties will become vulnerable to crime if built (therefore allowing them to challenge planning applications) or in the case of properties already developed, allowing resources to be directed towards properties at most risk.

Secured by Design is an award scheme, run by the Association of Chief Police Officers, which aims to encourage housing developers to design out crime, with a particular emphasis on domestic burglary, at the planning stage. This note presents reliable indications of its success from an evaluation originally commissioned by West Yorkshire Police.

The introduction of legislative requirements placed upon key agencies to consider the crime and disorder implications of every decision that they make has been a progressive step in crime reduction. Yet this requirement will not achieve its potential unless these partner agencies can agree upon which factors are indeed criminogenic and therefore what impact their decisions will have upon crime. Recognizing the need for clarification within the field of designing out crime within the built environment, this paper presents a comprehensive, yet straightforward and usable crime risk assessment mechanism which Architectural Liaison Officers and Crime Prevention Design Advisors can use to predict the vulnerability of residential housing to future crime and disorder problems.

Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) is a method of reducing crime through the design and manipulation of the built environment. Based upon the Opportunity Theories of crime, CPTED focuses upon blocking opportunities for criminal behaviour through subtle techniques to maximise informal surveillance, guardianship and maintenance, to minimise through movement and to set standards of physical security that are proportionate to crime risk. This chapter will discuss the principles of CPTED and the theories from which it evolved. It will explore the effectiveness of these principles, both individually and combined, in reducing crime, before exploring how CPTED is applied in practice.

This paper reports on the findings of a collaborative project (funded by the Home Office and managed by the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment - CABE) which was conducted in late 2009 and early 2010. The project set out to strengthen and update the evidence base on the impact of design on a range of crime types - with a specific focus upon housing developments acclaimed for their innovative design and award winning architecture. This paper presents the findings of an in-depth assessment of the impact of housing design features on crime. Utilising a comprehensive data collection exercise, the specific design features of thousands of homes were collated and assessed against police recorded crime data. The design features were based upon the key elements of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) including road layout, house design, surveillance, territoriality, car parking, communal space, management and maintenance and physical security. The unique and painstaking methodology not only provided an excellent dataset for analysis, but also highlighted the need both for greater conceptual clarity within CPTED and for crime-risk assessments to be based on the careful operationalisation and measurement of CPTED factors. As well as assessing the impact of specific (and combined) design features upon crime, the research also resulted in the production of a new data collection tool designed to address the weaknesses of existing checklists in assessing innovative contemporary developments, which are often unconventional in nature. The paper explores the degree of conflict and/or synergy between the traditional principles of CPTED and contemporary directions in architecture and design. Finally the paper considers the extent to which traditional CPTED principles remain relevant within contemporary residential developments and explores whether areas of revision are required.

This paper examines the mental health impacts of poor quality private-rented housing in the north of England during the UK’s first COVID-19 lockdown. The paper draws on data collected from semi-structured telephone interviews with 40 renters in the private-rented sector. We use the Power Threat Meaning Framework to highlight how substandard housing was a social and material vulnerability which, underpinned by powerlessness, resulted in threats that created and exacerbated the mental-ill health of precarious private renters. The paper suggests the pandemic and increased time spent in unhealthy places of residence can create stresses at a time of broader structural fragility, and calls for the greater engagement and integration of health practitioners in the future development of housing policy at all levels.

The importance of sustainable development is clear. The United Kingdom needs more homes, yet the impact on the environment must be minimized. Planning policy has begun to reflect this challenge, and the Code for Sustainable Homes (albeit voluntary) sets standards to improve the sustainability of new homes and offers a tool for developers to differentiate themselves within the market, based on their green credentials. Although there is no doubting the importance of sustainable development, it is essential to ensure that a step forward for the green agenda does not present a step back for crime prevention and designing out crime. This paper presents the findings from a recent project to establish the extent to which security and sustainability criteria might conflict. Through a detailed analysis of both planning and crime prevention policy, as well as a review of existing eco-homes throughout the United Kingdom, conflicts are identified and recommendations are made for aligning the two agendas.

The design of homes can enhance the quality of life of residents by reducing their vulnerability to crime. Copious research has identified the features of individual properties, their boundaries and development layout, which act as risk or as protective factors. This has been reflected to some extent in England and Wales through regulation, and national and local policy, guidance and incentives. Yet many housing developments considered excellent in terms of their design and architecture do not incorporate features associated with lower rates of crime. This does not matt er if good design is of itself crime reductive. The key question for policy is whether good design creates a crime-reductive dynamic (for example by engineering community spirit), or whether good design must be supplemented by features specific to a crime reduction purpose for lower rates of crime to result. UK government’s 2001 statement of housing policy is optimistic that good design will result in safe and secure neighbourhoods, but is unclear how this link is achieved. This question is here addressed, using data from three police forces and over 6,000 residential properties. The paper concludes that award-winning housing design (developments accorded Building for Life status) is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for low levels of crime victimization to result. Award winning design must be supplemented by the incorporation of crime-reductive design for residents to enjoy the quality of life conferred by good design, uncompromised by high crime rates.

This paper introduces the work of Project Marc (an EU-funded project to develop mechanisms for assessing the risk of crime) and discusses both difficulties encountered throughout the project and progress made since the project ended. The authors introduce the papers contained within this special edition and summarise their relevance to crime-proofing. The paper discusses progress made within this field in the decade prior to Project Marc and makes recommendations to ensure that the ideas move forward.

There is little doubt that the design of the built environment influences offender decision-making. Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) is a crime reduction approach that aims to prevent crime though the design (pre-build) or manipulation (post-build) of the built environment. CPTED is based upon a set of principles that include movement control, surveillance, defensible space and physical security, and research (see Armitage, 2013 for overview) has demonstrated the effectiveness of CPTED in reducing crimes such as burglary within the residential environment. This research explores the extent to which CPTED (and other design related) measures can be used to reduce shoplifting within a retail environment textendash namely two major supermarket chains in England. The results reveal that the principles of CPTED are relevant within the retail environment and that offenders are deterred by these features, in particular, where these principles result in an immediate (as opposed to delayed) detection or apprehension. Whilst the research is conducted in supermarkets within England, the conclusions are internationally relevant and can be transferred to many different retail environments.

In the field of CPTED, theorists and practitioners alike readily acknowledge the need to design buildings and layouts that closely fit the local context and wider design requirements, including aesthetics, social conditions, and development and construction constraints. Crime prevention functions cannot simply be imposed or bolted on while ignoring local circumstances and other priorities such as energy conservation. But gett ing crime prevention designs to work successfully can be tricky because they rarely act directly (as with putt ing high walls around a building), but exert their preventive effect by motivating and directing the actions of people such as residents, managers and passers-by, and deterring offenders. Crime prevention designs for the built environment can thus rarely be massproduced but must be customized to local conditions. CPTED evolved in Western countries, with commonalities of culture and built environment, despite variations, for example, in climate between Northern Europe and Australia. Transferring CPTED to other regions such as the United Arab Emirates therefore poses even more of a challenge, where there are marked differences not just in terms of climate but also in culture pertaining, for example to privacy, ownership of property, development control and tradition. Recent experience in researching international good practice and standards for application in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, is used to illustrate these contextual differences, to draw broader lessons for CPTED, and to discuss the challenges to cross-cultural knowledge transfer in crime prevention.

This paper presents the findings of an evaluation of a street crime warden scheme in a city in the north west of England. It specifically focuses on the aims of the warden scheme and provides a detailed overview of the role of the wardens. The scheme is examined with regard to the threat from police community support officers (PCSOs), public perceptions and the overall financial sustainability of the scheme.

Aims: In England and Wales, doctors are charged with a responsibility either to report a death to the coroner or issue a medical certificate specifying cause of death. A lack of formal prescriptive or presumptive oversight has resulted in the promulgation by individual coroners of local reporting regimes. The study reported here identified overall and gendered variations in local reporting rates to coroners across the jurisdictions of England and Wales, consistent over time. Methods: Analysis was performed on Ministry of Justice (MOJ) data pertaining to the numbers and proportions of deaths reported to the coroner by jurisdiction over a 10-year period (2001-2010). Office of National Statistics (ONS) data provided the numbers of deaths registered in England and Wales over the same period to serve as a denominator for the calculation of proportions. Where coroner jurisdictions (and local authorities) had been amalgamated during this period, the combined reported and registered death figures have been included in line with the current jurisdiction areas. Results: While reporting rates for individual jurisdictions were found to be stable over the 10-year period, wide local variations in reporting deaths to coroners were found with no obvious demographic explanation. The gender of the deceased was identified as a major factor in local variation. Conclusions: The decision to report a death to the coroner varies across jurisdictions. Implications for coronial investigations are discussed and the need for wider research into coroners’ decision-making is proposed.

This article analyses and critically reflects on the position of problem-oriented policing within England and Wales. Problem-oriented policing is a framework for improving police effectiveness. Its adoption has consistently been shown to be associated with sizable reductions in a wide range of crimes and public safety issues. However, many studies also find that problem-oriented policing is difficult to embed and sustain within police organisations. This article draws on the experiences and perspectives of 86 informed stakeholders to critically examine the position and practice of problem-oriented policing 40 years after its original formulation by Herman Goldstein in 1979. We argue that despite evidence of renewed interest in problem-oriented policing, the approach is not habitually conducted within police organisations in England and Wales. Where it is conducted, the practice of problem-oriented policing is found to lack discipline, the processes tend not to be faithfully followed, and there are weaknesses at all stages of the process. Implications of the findings for future research and police practice are discussed.

Introduction Interventions related to the perpetration of Domestic Violence and Abuse (DVA) have gained traction over the past several years, in response to dissatisfaction by victims, an inadequate response from the criminal justice system, increased demand on police time and a lack of rehabilitative responses to the perpetration of domestic abuse. The CARA model is a conditional diversionary caution, offered by police for first time offenders of ‘standard’ or ‘medium risk’ domestic abuse, that engages perpetrators in awareness raising workshops and signposts them onto further services. Although quasi-experimental studies have indicated that CARA showed promise at reducing reoffending, the CARA model has yet to be evaluated nationally and there is no qualitative evidence related to understanding or learning about the lived experience of perpetrators and victims as they engage with the intervention. Methods Using a concurrent pragmatic mixed methods design model we will undertake a national evaluation of CARA by triangulating quantitative data from up to nine police forces, and routine data from service providers, with qualitative data from workshop participants, victims and professional stakeholders to: (1) understand the long-term impact of CARA implementation on DVA reoffending and engagement with services and (2) explore perceptions and experiences of both delivery and receipt of CARA. We will use qualitative methodologies that draw on interpretivist and phenomenological perspectives, as well as quantitative methodologies using interrupted time series models, Poisson regression models, Geo mapping and a cost benefits analysis. Ethics and dissemination Where currently the CARA model is being introduced as a national option for standard risk first-time offending, we will engage with policymakers and academics nationally in the live debate on its effectiveness and suitability during its roll-out. Ethical approval was approved by the University of Southampton on the 1st June 2022 (Ref: ERGO ID: 71818.A1).

The research presented within this paper was conducted as part of a 2-year project (Project MARC) to develop and render operational a mechanism to assess the risk of theft of electronic products. Clarke and Newman (Secured goods by design - a plan for security coding of electronic products. London: Department of Trade and Industry, 2002) proposed the use of two checklists-one to measure vulnerability, the other to measure security-as a means of categorising products according to their vulnerability to theft. Consultation with key stakeholders yielded the common view that such a mechanism was worth pursuing, but that it must reflect the language of those who would use it. An extensive consultation with stakeholders from ten European member states ensued. Participants were asked to rate a range of electronic products in terms of vulnerability and security, and to explain their ratings. Their responses were used to develop two checklists that incorporate a variety of factors, weighted according to the frequency with which they were expressed. The crime vulnerability checklist developed within this paper is judged fit-for-purpose as a provisional measurement but we urge caution in relation to the security checklist.

Secured by Design (SBD) is an award scheme that aims to encourage housing developers to design out crime at the planning or concept stage. The scheme is managed by the Association of Chief Police Officers Crime Reduction Initiatives (ACPO CPI) while the day-to-day delivery of the scheme is conducted by Architectural Liaison Officers (ALOs) or Crime Prevention Design Advisors (CPDAs) working for individual police forces throughout the United Kingdom. The scheme sets standards for compliance that developments must meet to be awarded SBD status. This article presents the findings of research conducted over a 10-year period (1999-2009) into the effectiveness of the SBD scheme as a crime reduction measure. Utilising a variety of methods, the research aims to establish whether residents living within SBD developments experience less crime and fear of crime than their non-SBD counterparts; whether SBD developments show less visual signs of crime and disorder than their non-SBD counterparts; and finally, whether properties built to the SBD standard are able to sustain any crime reduction benefits over a 10-year period.

Owing to a number of high-profile shootings in the UK over the past decade, there has been a significant amount of media and political interest in youth gangs. This chapter reports on a study conducted in 2009 in a large city in the North of England. It discusses the structure and formation of gangs in this city from the view of the young people identified as gang members and those responsible for this identification, i.e., police officers. Findings demonstrated that few of the young people viewed themselves as belonging to a gang; indeed, many were scathing of such an attribution, contesting its applicability. A more accurate description of these young people is of a rather loose and fluid, interlinked but informal social network of friends and associates. There was evidence that the authorities’ labeling of some young people as gang members and adoption and use of gang names attributed coherence and identity to what was often only fluid and transitional youth group formations. This may have created the very circumstances it sought to challenge.

In this chapter, we examine the role of the police in crime prevention in the UK, how it has developed over the years, the position that it has reached currently and where it should be heading in the future. We begin by defining what is meant by crime prevention, its relationship to similar functions, such as ‘crime reduction’, ‘crime control’ and ‘community safety’, and its dependence on law enforcement processes and the Criminal Justice System (CJS) which provides the very foundation underpinning the preventive process. We distinguish between enforcement based ‘judicial’ prevention in which the police service is heavily involved and the broader notion of ‘civil’ crime prevention to which the police make a valuable contribution through mobilising, or working in partnership with, local communities, statutory agencies, voluntary groups and the private sector.

Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) represents a multifaceted approach to crime reduction that draws upon theories from environmental criminology, architecture and urban design and requires the commitment of agencies as diverse as police, planners, and housing developers. Its importance as a crime reduction approach has been formalized through strategy, policy, and regulation and its effectiveness has been confirmed in evaluations (see Brown, unpublished data, Pascoe, 1999, Armitage, 2000, Teedon et al., 2009; 2010, Armitage and Monchuk, 2011). Yet there remains a lack of clarity regarding CPTED’s definition, scope, and crucially, the fundamental components that form its definition. Conscious of the need for clarity and consistency, this article presents the findings from in-depth interviews with a sample of 10 incarcerated, adult, male burglars and 10 Designing Out Crime Officers in England and Wales. The method was exploratory and inductive, with participants being encouraged to express their perceptions of housing design features and the association of these features with burglary risk. The findings reveal key similarities between the users and abusers of CPTED and confirm (and elevate) the significance of features such as surveillance. However, other features of design traditionally considered as critical to burglary risk are afforded less importance—raising questions regarding terminology, weighting and redefinition.

Evidence shows that the application of problem-oriented policing can be effective in reducing a wide range of crime and public safety issues, but that the approach is challenging to implement and sustain. This article examines police perceptions and experiences regarding organisational barriers to and facilitators of the implementation and delivery of problem-oriented policing. Drawing on surveys of (n = 4141) and interviews with (n = 86) police personnel from 19 police forces in England and Wales, we identify five key barriers and facilitators to problem-oriented policing: leadership and governance, capacity, organisational structures and infrastructure, partnership working and organisational culture. These factors provide important indicators for what police organisations need to do, or need to avoid, if they are to successfully embed and deliver problem-oriented policing. The article generates critical information about the processes that drive change in police organisations and offers recommendations for police managers who may wish to implement or develop problem-oriented policing. The paper also proposes a research agenda aimed at addressing evidence gaps in our understanding of the implementation and sustenance of problem-oriented policing.

The non-offending partners (NOPs) of individuals who have committed sexual offences face significant repercussions following the discovery of their partner’s crimes. However, NOPs support needs have typically been overlooked, with priority instead placed on equipping NOPs with the skills to monitor their partner’s behaviour and/or protect their children from sexual abuse. The present study used Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis to qualitatively explore the accounts of women whose partners had committed a sexual offence (n = 9). Results highlighted that NOPs experience multiple losses, trauma, and dramatic shifts in their identities and cognitions following the discovery of their partner’s crimes via a “knock on the door” from the police. The findings highlight NOPs post-discovery support needs and have implications for professionals and agencies working with NOPs.

The history of policing is littered with reform programmes, which aim to improve effectiveness, efficiency and legitimacy. Problem-oriented policing (POP) and evidence-based policing (EBP) are two popular and enduring reform efforts, both of which have generated significant researcher and practitioner attention. There are important similarities between POP and EBP: both approaches provide a framework intended to improve the outcomes of policing. There are also key differences, however, in terms of their main objectives, standards of evidence and units of analysis. Despite both approaches being widely advocated and implemented, presently little is known about police practitioner understanding of the relationship between POP and EBP, both in principle and in practice. To address this gap, this paper draws on survey (n = 4,141) and interview (n = 86) data collected from 19 police forces in England and Wales in 2019 to explore police practitioners’ views on the relationship between POP and EBP, and the extent to which these two approaches inform contemporary police practices. Our findings indicate that respondents generally viewed the two approaches as complementary and important frameworks for orienting police work. However, respondents also drew attention to how the two approaches are not always connected organisationally nor in the minds of police personnel. In addition, challenges were identified in the application of both approaches in practice. Our results suggest that more needs to be done to maximise the potential of POP and EBP, both separately and synergistically. The article concludes by suggesting some ways in which this might be achieved.

Online child sexual abuse encompasses a range of offenses including the accessing, downloading, sharing and creating of images of child sexual abuse, often referred to as Child Sexual Abuse Material (CSAM). CSAM consumption has increased exponentially, and the lockdowns implemented as a response to COVID-19 have exacerbated this problem. CSAM offenders are more likely than other sex offenders to be married, to have children and to live with a partner and child(ren). Policy, practice and research has largely considered these families within the context of their protective properties, with little consideration for the individual and collective harms that they experience, and their unique support needs. Using data from 20 interviews with family members of those convicted of CSAM offenses in the UK, we propose seven key elements that characterize the impacts of CSAM offending on non-offending family members. We categorize these as: 1) Disenfranchised Grief; 2) Ambiguous Loss; 3) Ontological Assault; 4) Contamination by Causal Responsibility; 5) Wall of Silence; 6) No-Win Situation, and 7) Burden of Responsibility. We propose policy and practice responses to minimize these harms.

Law enforcement agencies (LEAs) globally are facing high demand to view, process, and analyse digital evidence. Arrests for Indecent Images of Children (IIOC) have risen by a factor of 25 over the previous decade. A case typically requires the use of computing resources for between 2-4 weeks. The lengthy time is due to the sequential ordering of acquiring a forensically sound copy of all data, systematically extracting all images, before finally analysing each to automatically identify instances of known IIOC images (second-generation) or manually identifying new images (first-generation). It is therefore normal practice that an understanding of the image content is only obtained right at the end of the investigative process. A reduction in processing time would have a transformative impact, by enabling timely identification of victims, swift intervention with perpetrators to prevent re-offending, and reducing the traumatic psychological effects of any ongoing investigation for the accused and their families.In this paper, a new approach to the digital forensic processes containing suspected IIOC content is presented, whereby in-process metrics are used to prioritise case handling, ensuring cases with a high probability of containing IIOC content are prioritised. The use of automated planning (AP) enables a systematic approach to case priorisation. In this paper, a planning approach is presented where AP is used to generate investigative actions in 60-minute segments, before re-planning to account for discoveries made during the execution of planned actions. A case study is provided consisting of 5 benchmark cases, demonstrating on average a reduction of 36% in processing time and a 26% reduction in time required to discover IIOC content.

There has been a significant rise in digital forensic investigations containing Indecent Images of Children (IIoC), and one of the major challenges faced by investigators is the time-consuming task of manually investigating images for illicit content. In the UK, law enforcement maintains and uses a standard national repository of IIoC, known as CAID (Child Abuse Image Database), to identify known illegal images by matching their image hashes and metadata. The CAID plays a significant role in making IIoC investigations faster and more effective. However, all images that are not matched through using CAID require manual analysis. Every image has to be viewed and verified as IIoC by investigators. The victim age estimation in the images (i.e., determining whether they are juvenile or adult as this would change the course of the investigation) is a crucial part of this verification process and takes time due to a large number of images to inspect, therefore impacting the speed of the investigation, and consequently victims. This is a time-consuming and challenging task for human investigators. Previous work has demonstrated that deep learning has the capability to estimate age with high accuracy in images. This reduces the number of images that will need to be manually processed, thereby finishing the investigation faster. However, in terms of practical implementation in IIoC investigations, there is an absence of a comparative study using the same datasets to establish the most appropriate deep learning model and classification approach to use. This is important as different models have different capabilities and previous works utilise various binary, multi-class, and regression approaches. It is not yet known which is the most accurate for use in digital forensic investigations. In this paper, we construct an extensive dataset before experimenting with four pre-trained deep learning models: VGG16, ResNet50, Xception, and InceptionV3. We have identified that binary classification works best for the identification of images as a child or adult, with the ResNet50 obtaining the best results in terms of accuracy (91.70%) on unseen images.

Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) aims to reduce crimethrough the design of the built environment. Designing out Crime Officers (DOCOs) are responsible for the delivery of CPTED by assessing planning applications, identifying criminogenic design features and offering remedial advice. Twenty-eight experienced DOCOs from across England and Wales assessed the site plan for one residential development (which had been built a decade earlier) and identified crime risk locations. Predictions of likely locations were compared with four years’ police recorded crime data. DOCOs are, to varying extents, able to identify locations which experienced higher levels of crime and disorder. However, they varied widely in the number of locations in which they anticipated burglary would occur.

The combined influence of the pandemic and fear of crime on CPTED effectiveness, park visitation, and urban park attachment introduces complexity and raises new research questions. Accordingly, this study examines the relationships between Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED), time spent in the park, perceived safety concerning crime (PSC), perceived safety concerning COVID-19 (PS19), and PA. It also investigates how these variables and their interrelationships differ between married and single individuals, as well as between old and modern parks. Structural equation modelling, a multigroup analysis, and SPSS are used to analyse data from 411 office workers in Baise City, China. Results indicate that the effect of CPTED on PS19 is mediated by both the time spent in parks and PSC, highlighting both the applicability and challenges of CPTED theory in promoting perceived pandemic-related safety. Furthermore, the influence of PS19 on PA is greater than that of PSC, underscoring the crucial role of urban parks in promoting PA by ensuring PS19. In contrast to previous studies, this study finds that time spent in the park does not significantly mediate the relationship between CPTED and PSC. Additionally, differences in study variables and their interrelationships are observed between single and married participants and between old and modern parks, revealing inequities in urban park benefits. These findings contribute to the expanded application of CPTED and its integration with PA theory, thereby offering empirical support for leveraging urban parks to enhance residents' well-being in future pandemics, aligning with SDG #11.

Domestic violence and abuse (DVA) is a global public health challenge. Project Cautioning And Relationship Abuse (CARA) is an out-of-court resolution used across police forces in England and Wales for lower risk, alleged first-time DVA offenders. This article reports on qualitative interviews and focus groups with professionals (police, commissioners, and CARA facilitators and managers, N = 31) about their experiences of delivering CARA following its national rollout. Reflexive thematic analysis indicated strong multiprofessional support for CARA across geographical areas. Professionals recommended changes to enhance current delivery, relating to differential assessment of risk; adaptations to training/implementation; and exploring perceptions of CARA by voluntary sector organizations.

The number of people claiming for personal injury after being involved in a road traffic accident (RTA) in the UK continues to soar. In April 2015, the UK Government intervened to implement measures aimed at reducing the prevalence of fraud within such personal injury claims. However, these reforms did not include claims for mental disorder that arise because of a RTA despite being responsible for substantially larger payouts in comparison with claims for whiplash. The present study examines the assessment practice for detecting fraudulent claims of this nature using a mixed methods survey analysing UK medico-legal professionals’ assessment methodologies (N = 37). The findings suggest comprehensively that assessment practices in this field are idiosyncratic. The findings evidence limitations in all aspects of the assessment process from medico-legal assessors being asked to undertake examinations without the presence of medical records to 44% of examiners being unaware of the three types of malingering. The article concludes with recommendations for improving both assessments and the assessment process for assessing RTA claimants in the UK.

This edited collection provides an original and comprehensive take on retail crime and its prevention, by combining international data and multidisciplinary perspectives from criminologists, economists, geographers, police officers and other experts. Drawing on environmental criminology theory and situational crime prevention, it focusses on crime and safety in retail environments but also the interplay between individuals, products and settings such as stores, commercial streets and shopping malls, as well as the wider context of situational conditions of the supply chain in which crime occurs. Chapters offer state-of-the-art research on retail crime from a range of countries such as Australia, Brazil, Israel, Italy, Sweden, the UK and the USA. This methodological and well-researched study is devoted to both academics and practitioners from a variety of disciplines and backgrounds whose common interest is to prevent retail crime and overall retail loss.

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) is a practice-oriented approach to reduce the risk of offences such as burglary and fear of crime by modifying the built environment. In recent years, this approach has been criticised for confused terminology and for failing to integrate successfully with other approaches.Rebuilding Crime Prevention through Environmental Design explores and extends the common ground between CPTED and situational crime prevention – another traditional approach in the field of crime prevention and security – via the latter’s evolution into the field of crime science. Drawing on international research to develop new interdisciplinary perspectives, this volume explores how situational crime prevention and environmental criminological theories relate to those of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design and considers how crime science can be reformulated to merge different approaches, or at least articulate them better.Rebuilding Crime Prevention through Environmental Design will appeal to students, applied academic researchers and practitioners who wish to deepen their understanding and contribute in turn to the ongoing revitalisation of the field.

The police service in England and Wales is facing major challenges in its financing, political oversight and reorganisation of its structures. Current economic conditions have created a wholly new environment whereby cost saving is permitting hitherto unthinkable changes in the style and means of delivery of policing services. In the context of these proposed changes Lord Stevens, formerly Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police Service was asked to chair an Independent Commission looking into the future of policing. The Commission has a wide ranging remit and the papers in this book offer up-to-date analysis of contemporary problems from the novel perspective of developing a reform agenda to assist the Commission.Bringing together contributions from both key academic thinkers and police professionals, this book discusses new policing paradigms, lays out a case for an evidence-based practice approach and draws attention to developing areas such as terrorism, public order and hate crime. Policing is too important to be left to politicians, as the health of a democracy may be judged by the relationship between the police and the public. The aim of this book is to question and present analyses of problems offer new ideas and propose realistically achievable solutions without being so timid as to preserve the status quo. It will be of interest to both academics and students in the fields of criminology and policing studies, as well as professionals in the policing service, NGOs and local authority organisations.