Professor Kevin Till

A variety of kinanthropometric measurements (the study of size, shape, proportion, composition and maturation) have been used to characterise youth rugby-playing cohorts. Herein, differences between age-grades and playing groups (forwards and backs) have been established, whilst maturation appears to influence performance and selection in talent development programmes. Additionally, anthropometric-based grading methods of youth players have been applied as an alternative to traditional age grouping strategies. However, there is a lack of transparency as a consequence of limited detail in the methods for the measures used and limited research examining (1) the differences beyond comparisons of forwards and backs in players of the same age; (2) community age-grade rugby; and (3) youth female rugby. Furthermore, whilst anthropometric-based ‘grouping’ methods appear theoretically sound, there is currently a lack of research to support their proposed benefits.

The concept of training youth athletes is not novel; however, since the turn of the millennium, there has been a significant increase in interest surrounding the efficacy of various training approaches on the holistic development of both children and adolescents. Despite this growing interest, practitioners should remember that youth athletes are a unique population and that their exposure to sports training and strength and conditioning programmes will coincide with normal growth and maturity-related changes in a range of physical, physiological and psychosocial qualities. Understanding key principles of paediatric exercise science and growth and maturation is therefore important to support long-term athletic development of youths. This chapter aims to introduce the key concepts of long-term athletic development related to the youth rugby player, including growth and maturation, physical development, injury risk, training load management and psychosocial development.

In this chapter, the ecological dynamics framework is used to provide an overview of talent identification research in male youth rugby. Specifically, the literature and research implications are reviewed and synthesised using three constraints: (a) the task (i.e., participation history), (b) the performer (i.e., psychological characteristics, technical and tactical skills, physical factors), and (c) the environment (i.e., relative age effects, sociocultural influences). In summary, it is highlighted that talent identification in male youth rugby cannot be based upon any performance characteristic in isolation and that the interaction amongst all constraints should be considered when identifying young talent. Moreover, these constraints appear to be contingent on (a) age group, (b) competition level, (c) nationality, and (d) playing position. Limitations of the current literature and proposed directions for future research are discussed emphasising the need for multidisciplinary and longitudinal research within male and female rugby players.

A comprehensive and accessible overview of the science behind preparing for performance in rugby.

Injury risk is a concern for youth rugby, with research since the 1980s reporting the injury incidence within the codes. This chapter aims to review the existing literature on the injury risk (including patterns of injury, risk factors, and concussion) and the injury prevention strategies used within youth rugby union and rugby league. In summary, the chapter shows that injury incidence of children participating is low but does increase during adolescence. Most injuries occur to the knee, shoulder, and head, with the tackle the major cause of injury. Numerous injury prevention strategies have been investigated (e.g., equipment, law modification, integrative neuromuscular training programmes), demonstrating they are effective. Future research should use consistent injury definitions, evaluate injury risk according to other player development factors (e.g., grouping strategies, physical development), and consider wider adoption, implementation, and maintenance of injury prevention strategies to make the codes of rugby as safe as possible.

This chapter overviews England Rugby Union’s dual-pathway approach to identifying and developing young rugby players. This dual pathway includes age-grade rugby (i.e., participation) and their player development pathway which is implemented via 14 regional academies. The dual pathway is characterised by being wide and emergent as well as narrow and focussed. The benefits to a wide and emergent, narrow and focussed pathway are discussed alongside the challenges that exist within such a pathway, including player identification, a multi-sport, multi-environment and multi-coach development programme (i.e., organised chaos), and coach education and development. This chapter provides an overview of the key findings and messages from the Talent Symposium, the Rugby Football Union talent identification and development system, and the benefits and challenges of deploying a wide and emergent as well as narrow and focused pathway. It overviews England Rugby Union’s dual-pathway approach to identifying and developing young rugby players. Rugby union (RU) is a field-based team sport with over 8.5 million players in member unions worldwide. RU is a high-intensity physical contact sport, involving periods of static exertions, technical skills, collisions and running, interspersed with periods of lower intensity work. The Developing Player Programme (DPP) is the first stage on the talent development pathway for young rugby players aged between 14 and 16 years. The DPP aims ‘to provide a first opportunity to identify those players with greatest potential to enter the pathway towards the professional game and England’.

Based on the propositions and implications from models of human development, coupled with current research design limitations in talent identification and development, the purpose of this chapter is to highlight the significance and benefits from longitudinal multi-variate research approaches toward knowledge and understanding of athlete development. Contemporary models of human development and exceptionality emphasise that there are multiple interacting relationships and reciprocal effects that shape (dys)functional development. Guided by social-ecological theoretical approaches, Talent Development Environments (TDEs) are predicted to affect individual psychology and psychosocial development. By comparison to physical and psychologically TID-related longitudinal studies, studies assessing and examining technical and tactical development have been limited. This broad but concise synthesis of longitudinal research in three areas of TID highlights the existing areas of investigation, research questions examined, methodological approaches adopted, analyses utilised, and provides a current critical assessment of research and applied contributions. In terms of participants, longitudinal study involvement can lead to attrition and dropout problems.

Keynote presentation and the Risto Telama Memorial Lecture at the 34th Paediatric Work Physiology Conference

The number of strength and conditioning (S&C) degrees in the United Kingdom has grown alongside the discipline's popularity. The design and development of these degrees are influenced by various stakeholders, including S&C association representatives, potential employers, degree representatives, students, and graduates. Prior to this study, the collective perceptions of these stakeholders regarding UK S&C degrees had not been researched. This study filled this gap by reporting on the results of 73 participants who completed a one-time anonymous survey, consisting of six sections: (a) background information, (b) degree endorsement, recognition, and accreditation, (c) course structure, (d) placements, (e) module topics, and (f) further information. Frequency analysis was employed for fixed-response questions and thematic analysis for open-ended questions. Participants valued S&C associations and their role in providing degree endorsements, recognitions, and accreditations as they demonstrate quality assurance and alignment with industry standards. However, they felt that professional qualifications from these associations should be more integrated into degree programmes. Regarding degree content and structure, participants agreed that undergraduate degrees should focus on foundational knowledge (e.g., physiology), while postgraduate degrees should cover specialised S&C content and applied practice (e.g., placements). However, some differences in opinion were observed concerning module topics, with participants lacking interest in research-based modules, despite being common, especially at postgraduate level. Placements were considered very important for gaining authentic practical experience, with most participants recommending they be compulsory. Although, flexibility was recommended for students with existing industry experience. These findings provide valuable and needed insights into current perceptions of UK S&C degrees, which may inform stakeholders decisions and practices, lead to closer alignment between stakeholder groups, and create beneficial changes for UK S&C degrees.

Context: The assumed risks of early specialization in sport are well known, with several international consensus statements advising against specialization in early athlete development. However, there have been recent calls for more focused research in this area. Evidence Acquisition: Research evidence from several scientific disciplines (eg, sport psychology, sports medicine, human development) were synthesized to develop a framework for practitioners working with adolescent athletes. Study Design: Narrative review. Level of Evidence: Level 4. Results: There appear to be risks associated with a highly specialized approach to athlete training, but the mechanisms driving these effects are largely unknown. Greater attention to understanding these mechanisms would help mitigate risk and develop stronger policy for athlete development. Recommendations for program modifications are provided. Conclusion: Early specialization remains an important topic for researchers and practitioners working with youth and adolescent athletes. However, more work needs to be done to provide truly evidence-based recommendations for youth athlete training.

Long-term athlete development is a primary focus for the England Rugby Football Union (RFU). The purpose of this study was to explore the anthropometric, physical, and relative age characteristics of rugby union academy players based on age group and playing position. Seventy-eight participants were measured for height, body mass, 10 and 20 m sprint, countermovement jump, peak and relative power, sprint momentum for 10 and 20 m, reactive strength index, aerobic capacity, isometric hip extension, dominant handgrip strength, and birth quartile (BQ) across three age categories (i.e., under-16, under-18, and under-21) and two positions (i.e., forwards and backs). ANOVA and Kruskall–Wallis analysis were used to examine differences across each age category and position. TukeyHSD and Dunn’s test with Bonferroni correction was used for further post-hoc analysis. BQ distributions were compared against national norms using chi-square analysis. Results revealed that both older forwards (P=0.005) and backs (P=0.002) had significantly greater body mass, momentum, power, and maximal aerobic capacity compared to younger players. However, older forwards had slower 10 m sprint times compared to younger forwards. Moreover, relatively older players were significantly overrepresented across all age groups when compared to relatively younger players. Findings suggest that: (a) players should aim to develop greater parameters of body mass, momentum, power, and aerobic capacity; (b) forwards should aim to develop acceleration, strength, momentum, and power; (c) backs should aim to develop momentum, power, and quickness; and, (d) coaches should consider relative age when recruiting and developing young players.

The relative age effect (RAE) is a phenomenon that represents how young athletes who are born early in the selection year are often overrepresented within youth sport settings. The contact nature of rugby union may further magnify the physiological advantages of those athletes who are chronologically older. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the RAE within English age-grade rugby union. Male (n = 228,206) and female (n = 23,563) English age-grade rugby union participants were allocated into their 12-month annual age-category (under-7 to under-18). Data was analysed using a chi-square goodness-of-fit test to compare the observed and expected distributions. Significant differences were revealed in all male (p < 0.001) and nine out of twelve female (p < 0.05) annual-age categories. From a male perspective, a higher relative difference became present at under-14 onwards, suggesting that there may be further implications due to the onset of puberty and the introduction of 15-a-side competition. Further female analysis revealed that there was a within-2-year effect in their 24-month age groups (under-13 and under-15). Interestingly, there was an inverse within-3-year effect (i.e., an overrepresentation of younger players) within the female 36-month age group (under-18). The key findings indicate a RAE has become ingrained in English age-grade rugby union, as well as outlining important gender-specific considerations.

Entry into an academy can be a defining moment for a promising young player. The aim of this study was to explore the multidimensional characteristics that differentiated selected and non-selected male under-15 rugby union players at an English Premiership academy. Seventy-four players (mean age 14.6 ± 0.3 years: selected n = 29; non-selected n = 45) were measured across nine characteristics from four overarching factors: (a) anthropometric (n = 2), (b) physiological (n = 5), (c) cognitive (n = 1), and (d) birth quartile. An ANOVA compared differences between groups (selected vs. non-selected), whilst a Welch's t-test and Cohen's d were used for further comparisons. A multivariate logistic regression was also used to predict selection. Results showed significant differences between selected and non-selected players for anthropometric (P = 0.021) and physiological factors (P < 0.001). Moreover, relatively older players were overrepresented with 65% born in the first half of the year, whereas no significant differences were apparent for the cognitive test. More specifically, selected players possessed greater body mass (P = 0.022, d = 0.5) and handgrip strength (P = 0.020, d = 0.5) compared to non-selected players, whilst multivariate analysis showed the 20 m sprint explained 25.4% of the variance (P = 0.001). Overall, it appears selection into an English Premiership rugby union academy may be due to enhanced physical attributes rather than cognitive abilities.

(1) Background: The progression of youth rugby union (RU) players towards senior professional levels can be the result of various different constraints. The aim of this study was to examine characteristics that differentiated playing positions and player rankings in an English Premiership RU academy. (2) Methods: Thirty players (mean age = 18.5 ± 2.8 years) were divided by playing positions (forwards = 18, backs = 12) and ranked (one to thirty) by coaches based on their potential to achieve senior professional status. Players were analysed across 32 characteristics from eight overreaching factors based on task, environmental, and performer constraints. MANOVA and ANOVA were used to calculate differences among variables in players’ positions (i.e., forwards vs. backs) and ranks (i.e., top 10 vs. bottom 10), with a Welch’s t-test applied to identify individual differences amongst groups and effect sizes calculated. (3) Results: Large effect sizes were found between groups for socioeconomic, sport activity, anthropometric, physical, and psychological factors. Moreover, environmental and performer constraints differentiated playing positions, whereas task and environmental constraints discriminated player ranks. (4) Conclusion: Present findings showed that playing positions and player ranks can be distinguished according to specific constraints.

Many elite sport organisations have introduced structured talent identification and development (TID) initiatives in youth sports to better facilitate elite sport performance. However, selection mechanisms for TID programmes (e.g., junior international team) are biased towards relatively older athletes and limited studies exist with Scandinavian contexts. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore the relative age effect (RAE) in youth, junior and senior male and female international team selections among Norwegian handball players (n = 657). A Chi-square goodness-of-fit test assessed whether a skewed birthdate distribution occurred at the youth, junior and senior international team levels and odds-ratios were calculated for RAE distribution. Moreover, a Kruskal-Wallis test was used to assess differences between the number of international youth, junior and senior level appearances by birth quartiles. Significant uneven birth date distributions were shown for youth (χ2(7) = female 40.383 and male 105.716, p <0.001) and junior (χ2(7) = female 27.427 and male 30.948, p <0.001) international players, favouring the relatively older player (odds-ratio of 1.9–8.3). At the senior level, no uneven distribution was identified. The comparison of the number of matches in each age category and the quartile of birth showed a difference in the women’s youth category, where players in quartile 8 had a significantly lower number of appearances compared to quartile 1. The results form part of a growing body of knowledge about selection mechanisms in sport, which favours relatively older athletes within Norwegian Handball. Such findings are important for policy and practice for informing TID programmes for inclusive selection opportunities for all players.

Background Subtle differences in chronological age within sport (bi-) annual-age groupings can contribute to immediate participation and long-term attainment discrepancies; known as the relative age effect. Voluminous studies have examined relative age effects in male sport; however, their prevalence and context-specific magnitude in female sport remain undetermined. Objective The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence and magnitude of relative age effects in female sport via examination of published data spanning 1984–2016. Methods Registered with PROSPERO (No. 42016053497) and using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis systematic search guidelines, 57 studies were identified, containing 308 independent samples across 25 sports. Distribution data were synthesised using odds ratio meta-analyses, applying an invariance random-effects model. Follow-up subgroup category analyses examined whether relative age effect magnitudes were moderated by age group, competition level, sport type, sport context and study quality. Results When comparing the relatively oldest (quartile 1) vs. youngest (quartile 4) individuals across all female sport contexts, the overall pooled estimate identified a significant but small relative age effect (odds ratio = 1.25; 95% confidence interval 1.21–1.30; p = 0.01; odds ratio adjusted = 1.21). Subgroup analyses revealed the relative age effect magnitude was higher in pre-adolescent (≤ 11 years) and adolescent (12–14 years) age groups and at higher competition levels. Relative age effect magnitudes were higher in team-based and individual sport contexts associated with high physiological demands. Conclusion The findings highlight relative age effects are prevalent across the female sport contexts examined. Relative age effect magnitude is moderated by interactions between developmental stages, competition level and sport context demands. Modifications to sport policy, organisational and athlete development system structure, as well as practitioner intervention are recommended to prevent relative age effect-related participation and longer term attainment inequalities.

A presentation at the Professional Association for Directors of Sport in Independent Schools Conference where I was asked to present on the challenges of managing school athletes sport and education

Presented at the Rugby Football League Embed the Pathway Conference on Movement Development of Youth Rugby League Players

This chapter proposes variability and changing developmental trajectories in young rugby players. It examines cases of two rugby league players who were part of a broader talent identification and development (TID) selected group. TID systems represent the contact point and transition between youthful interest and participation and adult, professional competition. The chapter also provides an overview of the Rugby Football Leagues (RFLs) Player development pathway. For purposes of attempting to ensure equal competition and opportunities, sport governing bodies and TID systems routinely allocate players into chronological annual age categories. Height and body mass are the most commonly used measurements of growth and, to indicate health status, individuals can be compared against large databases of chronologically aged matched healthy children using growth charts or reference data. TID systems are placing great emphasis on current performance, and, in doing so, are not recognising the confounding influences of growth and maturation on performance.

A common practice in youth rugby union is to group players based on (bi)annual age with fixed cut-off dates. The overrepresentation of players born at the start of the cut-off date and the underrepresentation of players born toward the end of the cut-off date are termed relative age effects (RAEs). The aim of this study was to examine RAEs during entry into professional and international rugby union pathways in England, as well as comparing them to their respective senior cohort: U15 Regional Academy Player (n = 1,114) vs. Senior Professional Player (n = 281) and U16–23 England Academy Player (n = 849) vs. Senior International Player (n = 48). Chi-square (χ2) analysis compared birth quarter (BQ) distributions against expected distributions. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals compared the likelihood of a BQ being selected. Findings revealed a significant overrepresentation of relatively older players compared with their relatively younger peers within both youth cohorts (P < 0.001; BQ1 = 42.5% vs. BQ4 = 9.6%; BQ1 = 36.5% vs. BQ4 = 15.2%). In comparison, there was no significant difference in the BQ distributions within both senior cohorts. Further, BQ4s were 3.86 and 3.9 times more likely to achieve senior professional and international levels than BQ1s and BQ2s, respectively. It is suggested that relatively younger players may have a greater likelihood of achieving expertise following entry into a rugby union talent pathway due to benefitting from more competitive play against relatively older counterparts during their development (e.g., reversal effects; the underdog hypothesis). Moreover, possible solutions (e.g., age and anthropometric banding; playing-up and playing-down) are discussed to encourage practitioners and policy makers to create the most appropriate learning environment for every player.

The purpose of this study was 1) to present the strength, speed and power characteristics of elite youth soccer players and provide benchmark data for strength and conditioning coaches; 2) to compare the speed, strength and power characteristics of youth soccer players by competition structure age categories; and 3) to determine the relationships between lower-body strength, eccentric hamstring strength, upper-body strength, sprint and jump performance. Sixty four (n = 64) academy male soccer players (U16s n = 18, U18s n = 22, and U23s n = 24), performed a predicted maximal squat test, bench press test and prone row test, eccentric hamstring strength test, countermovement jump, and 10m and 20m sprint speed test. The analysis of variance showed that age category had a significant effect on height, mass, countermovement jump, left eccentric hamstring strength, right eccentric hamstring strength, average eccentric hamstring strength, 20m sprint speed, estimated one repetition maximum squat absolute and relative, and estimated one repetition maximum bench press absolute. In the U16s age group, there was a significant relationship between 10m sprint and absolute squat strength (r = -0.759), and 20m sprint speed and absolute squat strength (r = -0.757). In the U23s age group, there was a significant relationship with 10m sprint speed and relative squat strength (r = -0.598), and 20m sprint speed and relative squat strength (r = -0.653). This study provides comparative data for elite academy soccer players. The benchmarks, allow strength and conditioning coaches to be individualised in their approach to training by creating subgroups.

The pathway towards expertise in sport has been studied within different contexts. Various methodological approaches have been used in research to explore the processes of talent identification (TID) and talent development (TD) in rugby union (RU). The aim of this study was to critically review the existing literature on TID and TD in RU in order to outline where the existing research lies, identify the most researched topics, and provide updated guidance for coaches, practitioners, and future research. Searches were conducted in the electronic databases PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Google Scholar. The following Boolean combination key words were applied: rugby union, AND, talent identification, talent development, early selection, youth selection, talent transfer, and youth development. This process was carried out in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. Databases provided 382 studies, with a total of 253 articles fully assessed (IRR = 98.6%, k = 0.94), of which a further 234 were excluded (IRR = 97.7%, k = 0.85). Following this screening, 15 articles were added from studies and review citations, resulting in a total of 34 articles included in the review. The ecological dynamics framework was applied to collate factors from the one- and multi-dimensional findings (Sarmento et al., 2018). The most investigated topics were as follows: (1) task constraints: (a) participation history; (2) performer constraints: (a) psychological factors; (b) technical and tactical skills; (c) anthropometric factors; (d) physiological factors; (3) environmental constraints: (a) relative age effects; (b) socio-cultural factors. Practitioners need to consider the players’ anthropometric, physiological, psychological, technical, and tactical profile, when selecting and developing young rugby union players. Further longitudinal mixed-method research is required to provide indications of the success of talent identification and development processes, to gain a better understanding on how these factors can affect selection and long-term progress.

The modern-day landscape of Olympic and Professional sport is arguably more competitive than ever. One consequence of this is the increased focus on identifying and developing early athletic talent. In this paper, we highlight key challenges associated with talent (athlete) identification and development and propose possible solutions that could be considered by research and practice. The first challenge focuses upon clarifying the purposes of talent identification initiatives such as defining what talent is and how its meaning might evolve over time. Challenge two centres on ways to best identify, select and develop talent, including issues with different approaches to identification, the need to understand the impact of development and the need to have appropriate resourcing in the system to support continued development of knowledge. Finally, we discuss two emerging challenges in relation to the ‘healthiness’ of talent identification and development. The first examines whether a talent identification and development system is ‘healthy’ for athletes while the second focuses on how sport stakeholders could discourage the apparent trend towards early specialization in youth sport settings. Whilst this paper discusses the research in relation to these challenges, we propose multiple possible solutions that researchers and practitioners could consider for optimising their approach to talent identification and development. In summary, talent is a complex and largely misunderstood phenomenon lacking robust research evidence, and given concerns that it is potentially unhealthy, talent identification and selection at younger ages is not recommended.

An Online First version of this article was made available at https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-018-0890-8 on 13 March 2018. Some errors were subsequently identified by the authors, particularly in regard to Table 4. Although the details pertained to in the table were correct in the original manuscript, it appears that errors were introduced during production of the article. The published article has now been updated with a corrected version of Table 4. This corrected version of the table is also shown below.

Talent identification and development systems (TIDS) are now common practice in youth sport. Research suggests that TIDS often favour the identification and selection of youths who mature earlier than their peers. Based upon this research evidence, alongside a review of their current practices, Leeds Rhinos RLFC have designed and developed a talent development programme for later maturing players within youth rugby league. This article summarises the research, describes how Leeds Rhinos RLFC have implemented the programme and concludes with reflections on the current programme whilst providing suggestions for future applications.

Whilst acknowledging few athletes by proportion attain the elite echelons of sport, modern athlete development systems are confronted by validity concerns and their capability to provide healthy forms of development (i.e., physical, psychological, social or functional). To improve validity and their contribution to individual development, both researchers and sport system practitioners identify the need to better understand the holistic athlete developmental process with the aim to achieve functional individual development. Functional development can be regarded as the recognition and interaction of biological processes, psycho-social conditions and behavioral training stimuli to healthily improve or accelerate facets of athletic performance. On this basis, and given existing concerns, research that examines multiple relevant variables longitudinally may prove most insightful. In this invited symposium, three international researchers provide an overview of their contemporary research that adopts a multi-disciplinary, multi-variate and longitudinal perspective informing function development and/or athlete development system validity. In thea first presentation, Dr. Marije Elferink-Gemser, provides a summary on their work examining talented athletes’ development of their sport performance over time in relation to underlying multidimensional performance characteristics (i.e., anthropometric, physiological, technical, tactical, and psychological). In the last decade, over one thousand talented Dutch athletes in a variety of sports, including among which are soccer players, field hockey players, basketball players, volleyball players, tennis players and speed skateingrs, have been followed longitudinally in the Groningen Talent Studies. These studies revealed that to reach expertise, athletes have their own unique developmental patterns. In the presentation, a selection of these patterns will be shown. Still, future successful athletes also have much in common (i.e., their capability to derive more from the same number of practice hours than less successful athletes), and, as a consequence, they are better able to constantly improve their performance. They are known to take responsibility for the progress; they develop and score higher on aspects of self-regulation of learning, such as reflection and effort. Although self-regulation may be considered as a general characteristic of an athlete, which can be applied across domains, the mechanism itself is highly context-specific. In the presentation, this mechanism of self-regulation of learning and its value for reaching expertise will be explained as well as how trainers and coaches can use this information in their training sessionspractice. In a second presentation, Dr. Kevin Till summarises collaborative work with UK rugby league. Kevin examines the relationships between maturity status, anthropometry and physical performance within talent identification, player development and future career attainment. With reference to a large dataset collected on players aged 13-15 years over multiple years, the presentation will showcase the longitudinal and retrospective research methodologies applied to better understand athlete development. The presentation will illustrate: (1) the longitudinal tracking of players during adolescence and how maturity status influenced physical development; 2) how retrospective analyses of anthropometric and fitness characteristics during adolescence were associated with future adult career attainment (i.e., whether players attained amateur, academy, or professional status); and 3) how examination of relative age, maturity status and playing position in adolescence affected future adult career attainment. In summary, these research findings highlight the complex interaction of age, maturity, anthropometry and physical performance during adolescence and how they influence future career attainmentathlete development and sporting achievements. These interactions have to be carefully examined relative to performance demands within the sport to better understand who are showing promising accelerated trajectories which associate with longer-term attainment. In the third presentation, Dr. Stephen Cobley, targets what researchers, sports-systems and practitioners can learn from these existingthis studiesresearch; highlighting considerations for future directions and practice. Alongside the importance of longitudinal tracking of athlete development, he also acknowledges the challenges and confounding factors in this process, for instance growth and maturation. Therefore, based on studies conducted in rugby league and soccer, Steve highlights methods and strategies for how athletes can be more accurately evaluated. These include the utilization of multivariate z-scoring assessments for individual profiling and corrective adjustment procedures based on maturation status and decimal age. To help showcase the potential for the latter approaches, Steve overviews recent work in swimming where longitudinal development profiles have been used to generate corrective adjustments in particular swimming events, for males and females. This allows researchers and practitioners , in order to equitably compare and evaluate individual swimmer trajectories, and to better inform their onward training and functional development with other supporting practitioners (coaches, national talent development coordinators). Although at early developmental stage, these methods and strategies may better help facilitate functional development and improve system validity.

Youths play sports for fun, to develop skills and for the psychosocial benefits associated with sports participation. Long-term athletic development is a concept that can support these aims within youth sports and develop happy and healthy young individuals. However, to successfully implement a long-term athletic development strategy, it is important to understand principles of paediatric exercise science including growth and maturation, how to develop athleticism (and reduce injury occurrence), enhance psychosocial skills and characteristics, and balance training loads. Focused on rugby, this chapter aims to (1) summarise the key research related to long-term athletic development, (2) present and discuss the practical application of the ten pillars of long-term athletic development proposed by the National Strength and Conditioning Association and (3) show how these principles can be delivered through a coaching session framework. Such information will help governing bodies, organisations and practitioners reflect and develop their practices for implementing long-term athletic development for all young rugby players.

Talent identification and development (TID) systems are increasingly being deployed across rugby. However, regardless of their common aim to develop future elite players, they have varied in their structure and content. In this chapter, the broad strengths and weaknesses of such systems are highlighted, with an emphasis on biological growth and maturational variability in youth players. Reflecting upon research studies and case players, several recommendations are provided for rugby systems and practitioners. Together, these aim to improve the effectiveness of TID systems, whilst remaining cognisant that player development is a multi-faceted process. In this chapter, the broad strengths and weaknesses of such systems are highlighted, with an emphasis on biological growth and maturational variability in youth players. It summarizes the common structural features of Talent identification and development (TID) systems including selection and tiers of representation at player developmental time points. Sporting TID systems typically reflect the social structures and environments where youthful athletic talent interacts with practitioners to maximise competitive performance or the facets of development. Specifically, TID systems often implement forms of identification and selection at chronological age time points coinciding with substantial growth and maturational variability. Sport governing bodies and TID systems routinely allocate players into chronological bi-annual age categories. Youth rugby league players selected to the Rugby Football League's national TID program were longitudinally monitored over three consecutive years between 2005 and 2008. TID systems are tasked with achieving the ‘top-down demands’ of developing future athletes.

In this chapter, the ecological dynamics framework is used to provide an overview of talent identification research in male youth rugby to help translate theoretical knowledge into practical considerations for organisations and stakeholders (e.g., coaches, practitioners, policy makers). Specifically, a research overview and practical applications are independently synthesised using three constraints: (a) task (i.e., participation history), (b) performer (i.e., psychological skills and characteristics, technical and tactical skills, physical characteristics) and (c) environmental (i.e., relative age effects, sociocultural influences). In summary, it is highlighted that talent identification in male rugby cannot be based upon any performance characteristic in isolation. Moreover, the interaction amongst all constraints should be considered by organisational structures and key stakeholders when identifying young talent and designing youth policies and practices.

Youth rugby players are often organised into (bi)annual-age groups to create equal competition and development opportunities for all players. However, the variability in kinanthropometry (i.e., the size, shape, proportion, composition and maturation) that exists between players of a similar chronological age can affect injury risk, physical performance, and talent identification. This chapter aims to review the research on the kinanthropometry of youth rugby players and presents a range of practical implications for coaches, sport scientists and practitioners working with young rugby players to consider in relation to kinanthropometry and grouping strategies within youth rugby development programmes. These practical implications include understanding and assessing growth and maturity, considerations for training and competition, talent identification and development strategies, and stakeholder communication.

Within the UK, the "Long Term Athlete Development" (LTAD) model has been proposed by a variety of national governing bodies to offer a first step to considering the approach to talent development. The model, which is primarily a physiological perspective, presents an advancement of understanding of developing athletic potential alongside biological growth. It focuses on training to optimize performance longitudinally, and considers sensitive developmental periods known as "windows of opportunity". However, it appears that there are a number of problems with this theoretical model that are not necessarily transparent to coaches. Principally, the model is only one-dimensional, there is a lack of empirical evidence upon which the model is based, and interpretations of the model are restricted because the data on which it is based rely on questionable assumptions and erroneous methodologies. Fundamentally, this is a generic model rather than an individualized plan for athletes. It is crucial that the LTAD model is seen as a "work in progress" and the challenge, particularly for paediatric exercise scientists, is to question, test, and revise the model. It is unlikely that this can be accomplished using classical experimental research methodology but this should not deter practitioners from acquiring valid and reliable evidence. © 2011 Taylor & Francis.

Objectives: To compare game-play characteristics between elite youth and senior Australian National Rugby League (NRL) competitions. Design: Longitudinal observational. Methods: The dataset consisted of 12 team performance indicators (e.g., ‘all runs’, ‘offloads’ and ‘tackles’) extracted from all 2016 national under 20 (U20) competition (elite youth; n = 372 observations) and National Rugby League (NRL) (elite senior; n = 378 observations) matches. Data was classified according to competition (Two levels: U20 and NRL) and modelled using two techniques. Firstly, non-metric multidimensional scaling resolved multivariate competition (dis)similarity, visualised using a two-dimensional ordination. Secondly, a conditional interference (CI) classification tree was grown to reveal the performance indicators most capable of explaining competition level. Results: Non-metric multidimensional scaling revealed high competition dissimilarity, with U20 and NRL teams orienting distinctive positions on the first dimension of the ordination surface. Five team performance indicators were retained within the CI tree (‘all runs’, ‘tackle breaks’, ‘tackles’, ‘missed tackles’, and ‘kicks’), which correctly classified 79% of the U20 observations and 93% of the NRL observations. Conclusions: Multivariate differences between elite youth and senior rugby league competitions were identified. Specifically, NRL game-play was classified by a greater number of ‘all runs’, and ‘tackles’ and a lower number of ‘missed tackles’ relative to the U20 competition. Given the national U20 competition is purported to assist with the development of prospective NRL players, junior coaches may consider training interventions that primarily aid the tackling capacities of players. This may subsequently assist with talent development and player progression in Australian rugby league.

Relative age effects in sports participation highlight the presence of a significant social and developmental inequality. To assess its prevalence, patterning, and size, this study examined participation trends of youth (ages 7–21 years) Rugby League players registered to local community clubs across the North of England (N = 23,943). Results showed that irrespective of relative age, participation growth occurred from U8 to U12s age categories. However, from U13 to U19s, participation became differentiated with the relatively younger showing earlier and progressively lowering participation proportions (e.g. Q4s – U13–U17 = 24–17%) and were up to 50% less likely to participate (i.e. Q4 vs. Q1 – U15–U16 OR = 0.48 and 0.50). Findings highlight the substantial earlier loss of participation for the relatively younger across youth ages. Player development systems containing inherent selection and differentiation during adolescence are presented as one key process affecting the decision to participate in youth Rugby League.

Relative Age Effects (RAEs), reflecting observed inequalities in participation and selection as a result of annual age-grouping, are a common problem in most team sports (e.g. soccer; Musch & Grondin, 2001: Developmental Review, 21, 147– 167). In junior representative Rugby League, RAEs increase with each performance level with coaches preferentially selecting taller, heavier and earlier maturing players. However, the effect of playing position on RAEs is not clear with limited data available as to whether maturational differences exist between playing positions in youth sport. Therefore the purpose of this study was to examine the RAE and maturational status amongst playing positions in high performance junior Rugby League players. With institutional ethics approval, 683 regionally (e.g. Yorkshire) selected players (Age mean 14.57, s¼0.83 years) underwent anthropometric testing between 2005 and 2007. Birth date, playing position,height, sitting height and body mass were obtained, and age at Peak Height Velocity (PHV) calculated (Mirwald et al., 2002: Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, 34, 689–694) for each player. Player’s birth dates were recoded by quartile (e.g. Q1¼September–November, Q2¼December–February, etc.) with playing position categorised into one of four subgroups (‘‘Outside-Backs’’, ‘‘Halves and Hookers’’, ‘‘Props’’ and ‘‘Backrowers’’). Chi square analysis identified significant uneven birth date distributions (w2¼236.36, P50.01) for all Regional players and each playing position. Odds ratio (OR) and 95% Confidence Intervals (CI) identified increased risk of selection (Q1 v Q4 OR: 13.39, 95% CI: 4.32–41.53) for the ‘‘Prop’’ position, with 82.9% of ‘‘Props’’ born in the first half of the selection year. One way analysis of variance identified significant (P50.01) differences in maturity, height and body mass between positions with ‘‘Props’’ and ‘‘Backrowers’’ significantly taller, heavier and earlier maturing than the ‘‘Outside-Backs’’ and ‘‘Halves and Hookers’’. Whilst recognising the physical demands of Rugby League, findings demonstrate that player selection at junior representative levels is significantly biased towards the relatively older player, with ‘‘Props’’ and ‘‘Backrowers’’ older, earlier maturing, taller and heavier than ‘‘Outside-Backs’’ and ‘‘Halves and Hookers’’. Thus, younger and later maturing junior players, especially ‘‘Props’’ and ‘‘Backrowers’’, may be disadvantaged in selection to Regional squads due to a lack of physical development, highlighting issues related to differences between selection for current performance and talent identification and development.

Professional rugby league clubs implement training programmes for the development of anthropometric and physical characteristics within an academy programme. However, research that examines seasonal changes in these characteristics is limited. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the seasonal changes in anthropometric and physical characteristics of academy rugby league players by age category (i.e., Under 14, 16, 18, 20). Data was collected on 75 players pre- and post-season over a 6 year period (resulting in a total of 195 assessments). Anthropometric (body mass, sum of 4 skinfolds) and physical (10 m and 20 m sprint, vertical jump, Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test and 1-RM squat, bench press and prone row) measures were collected. The Under 14s and 16s showed greater seasonal improvements in body mass (e.g., Under 14s = 7.4 ± 4.3 % vs. Under 20s = 1.2 ± 3.3 %) and vertical jump performance than Under 18s and Under 20s. In contrast, Under 18s and Under 20s players showed greater seasonal improvements in Yo-Yo performance and 10 m sprint (e.g., Under 14s = 1.3 ± 3.9 % vs. Under 20s = -1.9 ± 1.2 %) in comparison to Under 14s and Under 16s. Seasonal strength improvements were greater for the Under 18s compared to Under 20s. This study provides comparative data for seasonal changes in anthropometric and physical characteristics within rugby league players aged 13-20 years. Coaches should be aware that seasonal improvements in speed may not exist within younger age categories, until changes in body mass stabilize and consider monitoring changes in other characteristics (e.g., momentum). Large inter-player variability suggests that player development should be considered on an individual and longitudinal basis.

OBJECTIVES: The current study provided a longitudinal evaluation of the anthropometric and fitness characteristics in junior rugby league players across three annual-age categories (i.e., under 13s, 14s and 15s) considering playing position and selection level. DESIGN: Longitudinal design. METHODS: Eighty-one junior rugby league players selected to a talent development programme were tracked over a two year period. Anthropometric (height, sitting height, body mass and sum of four skinfolds) and fitness (lower and upper body power, speed, change of direction speed and maximal aerobic power) characteristics were measured on three occasions (i.e., under 13s, 14s and 15s). Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA; controlling chronological and maturational age) analysed changes across annual-age categories in relation to playing position and selection level. RESULTS: Findings identified significant improvements in anthropometric and fitness characteristics across annual-age categories (p<0.001). MANOVA and MANCOVA analysis identified significant overall effects for playing position (p<0.001) and selection level (p<0.05) throughout the two year period. Interactions between playing position and time were identified for height, vertical jump and estimated V˙O(2max) (p<0.05). Selection level by time interactions were identified for 20m, 30m and 60m sprint (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates the improvement of anthropometric and fitness characteristics within junior representative rugby league players. Interactive effects for playing position and selection level by time highlight the variation in the development of characteristics that occur during adolescence. Tracking the progression of characteristics longitudinally during adolescence, instead of at one-off time points, may assist selection and/or performance assessments within rugby league and other youth sport contexts.

Background Physical development during adolescence is crucial for athletes in team sports, as it prepares them for the high sport demands at the senior level. While physical development in non-athletes are well-documented, a comprehensive understanding of adolescent athletes' development, including the potential effects of team sports participation and training load, is lacking. Objectives The study aimed to investigate the development of physical characteristics in team sport athletes during adolescence (12-20 years) and explore the impact of training load. Methods A systematic search of the databases PubMed, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science were conducted combining keywords related to physical characteristics, youth athletes, team sport and study design. Criteria for inclusion were: (1) team sport athletes aged 12-20 years, (2) cross-sectional or longitudinal designs investigating physical characteristics, (3) comparisons across different age groups, (4) peer-reviewed original article, (5) written in English, and (6) available results from physical testing. Results were normalized and weighted based on sample size. Results 176 eligible articles were identified. The results showed consistent annual improvement in most physical characteristics from 12 to 16 years for both sexes (e.g., boys: lower body strength 14.3%; intermittent endurance 11%; countermovement jump height 6.7%; change of direction 2.8%; 30 m sprint 3.6%, and girls: lower body strength 9.4%; intermittent endurance 12.1%; countermovement jump 4.7%; change of direction 3.3%; 30 m sprint 1.9%). Only 4 studies investigated the effect of training load on physical development. Conclusions Although both sexes consistently improved through adolescence, girls tended to have less pronounced physical development compared to boys, likely due to lower increase in lean mass and limb length. The existing evidence do not definitively establish whether team sports participation, compared to studies examining non-athletes, or training load have an additive effect on physical development during this period.

In the United Kingdom (UK), a degree in strength and conditioning (S&C) or an associated discipline is a common requirement for obtaining a professional S&C certification and employment as a S&C coach. However, limited research has comprehensively reviewed undergraduate and postgraduate S&C degrees in the UK, which this study aimed to do. A search for S&C degrees was conducted via two directories. In total, 20 undergraduate and 29 postgraduate courses were identified. All course information, including module titles, was extracted. Course information was assessed using frequency analysis and module titles via open coding. Entry requirements for undergraduate degrees ranged from 80–120 UCAS points, and a 2:1–2:2 degree classification for postgraduate degrees. Almost half of undergraduate S&C degrees were considered ‘multidisciplinary’ and included other topics (e.g., BSc S&C and rehabilitation). Over half of the undergraduate degrees offered a foundation year, and 59% of postgraduate degrees offered a non-academic entry option. Overall, 50% of undergraduate degrees could be completed as full-time or part-time, which increased to 79% at postgraduate level. Placement modules were compulsory across undergraduate degrees (except for one) and featured to a lesser extent at the postgraduate level. The most common modules at the undergraduate level focused on anatomy and physiology, S&C, biomechanics and movement analysis, research, and academic and professional skills. The least common modules were motor learning and control, business, and sociology. Differences were observed with postgraduate degrees, given an increased focus on modules associated with research, S&C, and academic and professional skills. This information may help higher education providers to evaluate, revise, and develop S&C courses; awarding associations further enhance recognition and accreditation pathways for S&C degrees; potential employers tailor job descriptions and specifications to align with graduate capabilities; and prospective students gain insight into each course, potentially informing their course choice(s).

A common practice in youth soccer is to organise players into annual age groups using fixed cut-off dates. Such practices often result in ‘relative age effects’ (RAEs), which create an overrepresentation of players born at the beginning of the cut-off date and an underrepresentation of players born towards the end of the cut-off date. Due to the increasing studies exploring RAEs in soccer, the purpose of this chapter is to synthesise the current literature and outline the contextual factors that impact RAEs as well as offer possible solutions. As such, this chapter explores: (a) male youth soccer, (b) female youth soccer, (c) senior soccer, and (d) potential relative age solutions. Looking back at the existing literature, RAEs appear prevalent throughout both male and female youth soccer across the globe. Specifically, contextual factors (e.g., age, competition level, country, gender, playing position) as well as organisational structures (e.g., soccer clubs, governing bodies) and key stakeholders (e.g., coaches, scouts) can influence the extent to which RAEs occur. Further, it appears inconsistencies arise when exploring RAEs in senior levels, including the underdog hypothesis and knock-on effects on career success. Moving forward, researchers and practitioners are encouraged to work collaboratively to consider: (a) incorporating theoretical frameworks as part of their research methodologies to help better understand the explanatory factors of RAEs, (b) conducting qualitative and prospective studies to explore stakeholder perspectives and the long-term implications of RAEs, and (c) developing, implementing, and evaluating possible relative age solutions. Relative age effects (RAEs) are a well-established phenomenon in organised youth sport. When individuals are allocated into annual age groups, relatively older athletes are often overrepresented throughout recreational and talent pathways when compared to their relatively younger peers. This chapter looks at the existing literature to outline the contextual factors that can impact RAEs in soccer as well as examine possible relative age solutions. Relative age effects in male youth soccer occur on an international scale and have been identified across several countries, including America, Brazil, Germany, France, Holland, Scotland, Slovakia, Spain, and Switzerland. Age and competition level are amongst the more commonly discussed moderating variables for female soccer players. In male soccer, higher RAEs have been reported among defenders, whereas the impact varies across other playing positions based on country and playing styles.

The word “talent” is used across many sport disciplines – to describe an athlete’s prowess (i.e. “he is talented”), as a term for what is sought after during assessment and selection (i.e. talent selection camps) or in reference to players to be developed (i.e. “a group of talents”). While the term has received research attention regarding its definition and criteria, its utility in practical settings is often debated. In this paper, we review several areas of concern researchers have raised for using the term “talent” and why this matters in the context of athlete development. While the notion of talent continues to resonate with coaches, scientists and practitioners, we suggest several areas for future research and recommendations for the use of this controversial term.

An increased number of strength and conditioning (S&C) degrees are now offered in the United Kingdom, given the growing interest in S&C. These degrees can be recognized and accredited by the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA), the Chartered Institute for the Management of Sport and Physical Activity in collaboration with the United Kingdom Strength and Conditioning Association (CIMSPA-UKSCA), and the International Universities Strength and Conditioning Association (IUSCA), with each association requiring different and specific criteria to be met. Consequently, when course representatives apply for one or more awards, this can become a complicated task. Therefore, this paper aimed to consolidate recognition and accreditation criteria for each awarding association and present the number of S&C degrees recognized and accredited. Criteria for each awarding association were obtained and summarized into a user-friendly format. The number of courses recognized and accredited by each awarding association was obtained by reviewing the websites of each S&C degree, which were sourced from the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS), NSCA, UKSCA, and IUSCA directories. As of July 2023, 20 undergraduate and 29 postgraduate courses were identified. The NSCA recognized 10 undergraduate and 12 postgraduate courses, CIMSPA-UKSCA accredited 11 undergraduate and 7 postgraduate courses, and IUSCA accredited 5 undergraduate and 2 postgraduate courses. Recognitions are inexpensive compared to accreditations due to fewer criteria to be met. Most undergraduate degrees held 1-2 recognitions or accreditations, which was 0-1 for postgraduate degrees. All recognitions require specific module, practical, and assessment content to be covered, which in part should be delivered by staff holding a discipline-specific undergraduate or postgraduate degree accompanied with a professional S&C certification. All accreditations require courses to include supervised practical experience and evidence suitable learning environments. The NSCA and IUSCA accreditations require degree titles to indicate the course specialization (e.g., BSc in S&C) and include a site visit to validate and accredit each course. The CIMSPA-UKSCA and IUSCA accreditations require courses to evidence that transferable graduate knowledge and skills are being developed. This paper can inform (a) course representatives of the criteria to obtain each recognition or accreditation; (b) prospective students to understand and distinguish between each recognition and accreditation, and observe which degrees have received each award; (c) potential employers to tailor job profiles to align with graduate capabilities; and (d) awarding associations to compare and review their recognitions and accreditations with other awarding associations, to support their continued enhancement or diversification.

The pathway towards senior professional status in sport is affected by a multitude of factors. An abductive examination of the talent identification and development processes at an English Premiership rugby union (RU) club was undertaken for the present study. Part one examined the perspectives on the selection and development processes of senior academy male players (n = 8), whereas part two explored the perceptions of male coaches (n = 7). A total of three focus groups were used. Three main themes were confirmed by players and coaches: (a) task constraints, (b) performer constraints, and (c) environmental constraints. Specifically, although athletes and coaches believed that performer constraints were highly impactful on players' career in RU, there were inconsistencies surrounding the task and environmental constraints. Despite an indication that three common themes impacted an players path, this preliminary study shows an imbalance in the understanding of some of the key factors perceived to be important for talent progression in the present rugby academy. More research using similar qualitative methods is recommended to better understand the differences in opinions between players and coaches. Meanwhile, practitioners should consider implementing objective and holistic strategies to improve the talent pathway in English RU academies.

Humans are fascinated by the bipedal locomotor capacities at both ends of the athletic spectrum—sprinting speed and endurance. Some of the more popular field (eg, soccer, rugby, and lacrosse) and court (eg, basketball, tennis, and netball) sports utilize mixed energy systems requiring an interplay of both maximal sprinting speed (MSS) and maximal aerobic speed (MAS) to meet the high-intensity running demands of varying frequency, duration, intensity, and recovery. Recently, these locomotor capacities have been considered in combination to produce what is called the anaerobic speed reserve (ASR) as part of the locomotor profile concept (MSS, MAS, and ASR). The purpose of this narrative review is to (1) provide an overview of the locomotor profile concept; (2) review the assessment methods for estimating MSS, MAS, and ASR; (3) examine the age-, sex-, and maturity-associated variations in MSS, MAS, and ASR; (4) examine the trainability of MSS, MAS, and ASR in youth athletes; and (5) conclude with the practical applications using principles of long-term athlete development for training the locomotor profile in youth field and court sport athletes. Based on the available data in young male athletes, MSS, MAS, and ASR generally increase with age and across maturity groups and are trainable. Overall, decisions on training need to consider the sport demands, current fitness and maturity status, and targeted training adaptation sought.

In this short commentary, I provide considerations for whether genetic testing is a worthwhile investment within sporting talent identification and development systems based upon the recent paper by McAuley and colleagues. In summary, these reflections suggest that genetic testing may not be a good use of resource within talent identification and development. This is because of the cost of genetic testing, the limited evidence for it’s use but more importantly the complexities of talent identification and development in sport that in reality cannot be solved by genetic testing.

Background: Physical fitness in childhood and adolescence is associated with a variety of health outcomes and is a powerful marker of current and future health. However, inconsistencies in tests and protocols limit international monitoring and surveillance. The objective of the study was to seek international consensus on a proposed, evidence-informed, Youth Fitness International Test (YFIT) battery and protocols for health monitoring and surveillance in children and adolescents aged 6–18 years. Methods: We conducted an international modified Delphi study to evaluate the level of agreement with a proposed, evidence-based, YFIT of core health-related fitness tests and protocols to be used worldwide in 6- to 18-year-olds. This proposal was based on previous European and North American projects that systematically reviewed the existing evidence to identify the most valid, reliable, health-related, safe, and feasible fitness tests to be used in children and adolescents aged 6–18 years. We designed a single-panel modified Delphi study and invited 216 experts from all around the world to answer this Delphi survey, of whom one-third are from low-to-middle income countries and one-third are women. Four experts were involved in the piloting of the survey and did not participate in the main Delphi study to avoid bias. We pre-defined an agreement of ≥80% among the expert participants to achieve consensus. Results: We obtained a high response rate (78%) with a total of 169 fitness experts from 50 countries and territories, including 63 women and 61 experts from low- or middle-income countries/territories. Consensus (>85% agreement) was achieved for all proposed tests and protocols, supporting the YFIT battery, which includes weight and height (to compute body mass index as a proxy of body size/composition), the 20-m shuttle run (cardiorespiratory fitness), handgrip strength, and standing long jump (muscular fitness). Conclusion: This study contributes to standardizing fitness tests and protocols used for research, monitoring, and surveillance across the world, which will allow for future data pooling and the development of international and regional sex- and age-specific reference values, health-related cut-points, and a global picture of fitness among children and adolescents.

The quantification and development of physical qualities of youth rugby players is vital to support athlete preparation and long-term development. This chapter summarises and presents the research quantifying the physical qualities and their development of male youth rugby union and rugby league players and compares between age grades and playing positions, whilst considering the effect on career attainment and coaches’ perspectives. A range of research presents the physical qualities of youth rugby players, including stature, body mass, body fat percentage, muscular strength, muscular power, linear speed, change of direction, and aerobic capacity. Differences are apparent by age grade and position. However, the research has several limitations, including the presentation of small sample sizes and lack of consistency in the measures used. Future research should consider the use of national standardised testing batteries due to the inconsistency in testing methods and small samples limiting the reporting of positional differences. Practitioners can use the results from this review to evaluate the physical qualities of youth rugby players to enhance training prescription and goal setting.

Objectives: Quantify concussion under-reporting and factors associated with concussion reporting in rugby league players. Design: Cross-sectional online anonymised survey. Setting: Rugby league in Europe. Participants: 422 elite men’s and women’s players registered with the governing body. Interventions: Independent variables: age, playing history, international experience and playing position. Outcome Measures: Dependent variables: concussion history, prevalence and reasons of under-reporting concussion, concussion knowledge and long-term implications of concussion. Results: 19.5% did not report concussion-related symptoms to medical staff during the 2020 and 2021 seasons. The most common reasons for under-reporting concussion were ‘didn’t want to be ruled out of a match’ (34.5%) and ‘didn’t want to let down team’ (24.3%). Symptoms of concussion were correctly identified on 73.5 ± 0.2% of occasions. At the start of their senior rugby league career versus now, 65.2% and 88.6% of players had an appropriate level of knowledge about concussion and the potential long-term implications. 56.7% of players were concerned about the potential long-term implications from concussion, and 11.3% of players would encourage their/family members children to not play rugby league. Conclusion: More players in this study tried to hide concussion symptoms than previously reported in a similar cohort. The main reasons for not reporting concussion appear linked to the players perceptions of what is beneficial for the team, suggesting both performance and medical staff should encourage the reporting of concussion symptoms. This is an individual modifiable risk-factor and should be a priority for rugby league players and all stakeholders for supporting long-term concussion management.

he aim of the thesis was to investigate changes in markers of fatigue following training and match-play in academy rugby union players. Prior to investigations, the between-day reliability of fatigue markers was investigated. Measures of lower-and upper-body neuromuscular function (countermovement jump (CMJ) and plyometric push-up) demonstrated acceptable reliability (CV = 2-6%) in a number of metrics, as did whole blood creatine kinase concentratio n ([CK]) (CV = 26.1%) and a short wellbeing questionnaire (CV = 7.1%) when considering the signal to noise ratio. Additionally, the validity of micro-technology (GPS and accelerometer metrics) was evaluated for assessing training and match characteristics. Specifically, 10 Hz GPS proved a valid measure of maximum sprint velocity (r = 0.93-0.98) while Player LoadTM slow demonstrated a useful surrogate measure of collision activity (r = 0.61-0.80). Finally, observations from a preseason training cycle showed that CMJ metrics demonstrated superior sensitivity to training than a 6-second peak power cycle ergometer test for assessing lower-body neuromuscular function.  Following match-play, substantial (likely-almost certainly greater than the smallest worthwhile change) changes in markers of fatigue were observed, which peaked at 24 hours post-match, and recovered in the first 3 days thereafter. Field-based training inclusive of contact resulted in substantially greater reductions in upper-body neuromuscular function and perception of wellbeing, and greater elevations in [CK], while exclusion of contact induced possibly greater reductions in lower-body neuromuscular function 24 hours post-training. Findings suggest it may be prudent to afford players a recovery day following either match-play or contact training. Furthermore, the results demonstrated the individual nature of fatigue, underlying the importance of individual athlete monitoring. Additionally, possible and likely increases in lower-body strength and sprint maximum velocity respectively were observed during a preseason despite substantial reductions in CMJ mean power, questioning the usefulness of a CMJ for monitoring fatigue in the context of strength and sprint velocity development. 1

Elite youth soccer academies in the UK aim to identify and develop talented young soccer players into future elite performers. The need to develop more and better home-grown players, has coincided with an ever-increasing volume of research which aims to understand the potential predictors and characteristics of future elite performers. Despite the quantity of such research, a large majority has failed to account for the multidisciplinary, longitudinal nature of player development. Additionally, much of this research has focused purely on objective measures of performance, failing to account for the subjective opinions of key staff. The current thesis adopted a novel approach to investigate how a multidisciplinary, longitudinal profiling tool, encompassing data from objective and subjective sources in the form of signs (isolated measures of performance attributes), samples (in-game measures of performance related variables), and subjective expert opinions (contextualised perceptions of player performance), impacted talent identification, talent development, and (de)selection processes within a single elite youth soccer academy. The studies undertaken: a) reviewed the landscape of current talent identification methods in team sports (Chapter 2), b) investigated the academies current processes (Chapter 3), c) developed elements of the profiling tool (Chapters 4 and 5), d) engaged with the reflections from academy staff (Chapter 6), before e) providing examples (Chapter 7), empirical research (Chapter 8), and challenges of the profiling tool being utilised within the academy environment (Chapter 9). Key findings demonstrate the need for, and processes of, developing a multidisciplinary, longitudinal profiling tool utilizing both objective and subjective sources of information. Such a tool was then shown to demonstrate utility in facilitating key decisions, accurately classifying 78% of players in regard to (de)selection. The findings provide insight into a novel, transferable, and applicable approach to talent identification, development, and (de)selection processes within elite youth soccer.

This three-part study aimed to 1) investigate the most common profiling practices in male rugby union; 2) identify factors profiled within youth players; and 3) assess the importance of these factors for player progression and their measurement feasibility. Part one employed a systematic scoping review. For part two, expert practitioners participated in a Nominal Group Technique session to identify factors to profile within youth male rugby union. Part three included practitioners from a Tier One rugby nation and researchers, who ranked their agreement for importance of the identified factors, and their measurement feasibility. The review identified 107 studies profiling 50 factors across five themes: physical (n=67 studies), demographic (n=25), psychological (n=20), technical (n=20), and tactical (n=6). Expert practitioners reported an additional 20 factors that should be profiled. Over 70% of survey participants agreed that 40 factors were important for progression and 28 factors were feasible to measure. Only 15 factors reached 70% agreement for both importance and feasibility, including strength, power, and games played. Factors across all themes were considered important, re-emphasising the need for multi-dimensional profiling within youth male rugby union. Further research is required to enhance the feasibility of measuring these factors and create a multidimensional player profile.

Athletes need to be highly motivated to train at the required frequency, intensity, and volume to enable favourable physiological adaptations.  In group settings, it is important to consider the role socio-environmental influence might have in diminishing or strengthening athlete motivation.  The purpose of this study was to compare five modified strongman training session designs (i.e., 1. Individual, 2. Working in pairs, 3. Working in pairs with stronger partner, 4. Leader board with no feedback, 5. Leader board with feedback) on athlete motivation and performance.  Performance was measured by the number of repetitions completed during sixty seconds for the keg swing and sledgehammer strike exercises.  Motivation was assessed pre and post training via a questionnaire.  To compare between the five session designs, a repeated measures analysis of variance was undertaken along with Cohen’s d effect sizes between each session (e.g., 1v2, 1v3, 2v3).  When examining changes in motivation, and motivation between session design an overall significant effect was demonstrated.  For performance measures, overall significant differences were found across the session designs.  The current findings demonstrate that athlete motivation and strongman performance can be enhanced by manipulating the design of a modified strongman training session. Working in pairs or using a leader board with feedback enhanced motivation and performance compared to working alone or using a leader board without feedback.  These findings suggest than planning and delivering modified strongman training sessions that consider the socioenvironmental design of the session including ways to enhance motivation should be recommended for coaches to enhance athlete motivation and potentially improve physiological performance.

Youth male soccer is more competitive than ever as clubs strive to recruit, develop, and produce future elite soccer players. Within youth soccer academies, it is important to recognise that, talent development (TD) and (de)selection are on-going and complex multidisciplinary processes with several challenges. Part 1 of this paper presents three real-world practical challenges including: (1) the ability to differentiate between performance and potential, (2) understanding and alignment to develop talented players, and (3) decision-making processes and (de)selection of players. The paper then presents a possible solution to these challenges demonstrated through the application of a multidisciplinary profiling tool created and utilised within a youth male soccer academy in the UK (Part 2). Finally, Part 3 of the paper identifies the applied challenges associated with implementing such a tool within a TD environment and provides possible solutions for effective implementation. The creation and implementation of the multidisciplinary athlete profiling tool can facilitate TD, and support (de)selection decisions. The solutions provided may serve as principles that can be flexibly implemented across a variety of sports and environments to augment TD and (de)selection processes.

While athleticism is recognised as a guiding principle for youth development, practitioners’ perceptions of athleticism are variable and unidimensional. Therefore, this study aimed to explore academic and practitioner perceptions around the concept of athleticism, including its importance and measurement. A multi-method survey was completed by 167 academics and practitioners (sport coaches and strength and conditioning coaches). The survey consisted of six sections: (1) participant demographics; (2) role specific demographics; (3) knowledge of athleticism; (4) importance of athleticism; (5) perceptions of the current definition of athleticism; and (6) measuring athleticism. Fixed response quantitative data were analysed in SPSS and qualitative data were analysed using template analysis. Athleticism was described as a multi-dimensional (i.e., physical and psychological), dynamic (i.e., product and a process that interacts with the environment), and adaptable (i.e., individual, environment and sporting context specific) concept. Developing athleticism was deemed important for both participation and performance environments for: 1) mental and physical health and wellbeing, 2) engagement in physical activity and sport, 3) enhancing physical and psychosocial characteristics, 4) reducing injury risk, and 5) for successful sporting performance. However, numerous theoretical and practical challenges were identified for measuring athleticism. It is imperative that academics and practitioners working with youth are cognizant of the athleticism descriptors (i.e., multi-dimensional, dynamic and adaptable) when researching and developing youth athleticism.

Background: Despite its apparent popularity, participation in the sport of rugby union is accompanied by a significant risk of injury. Concerned parties have recently questioned whether this risk is acceptable within school populations. This is difficult to assess within the South African schools’ population as no recent longitudinal injury studies exist.Objectives: To determine the training habits, rugby-related exposure and injury risk within a population of South African high school first team rugby players.Methods: Training and match exposure in both school and provincial competition were examined and the resultant injuries were longitudinally observed for the duration of a South African high school rugby season.Results: Match (79, 95%CI 52-105 injuries/1 000 h) and training (7, 95%CI 3-11 injuries /1000h) injury incidences were demonstrated to be greater than previously reported incidences in similar populations in England and Ireland. Weeks where players were exposed to both school and provincial competition (34, 95%CI 19-49 injuries /1 000 h) had significantly (p<0.05) greater injury incidences than during school competition alone (19, 95%CI 12-26 injuries /1 000 h).Conclusion: The injury risk demonstrated was greater than expected and represents reasons for concern. Possible reasons for the high injury incidence recorded may be the frequency of games played within the season, and the overlap of school and provincial competitions. It should be noted that these results were taken from one school over one season and might not be representative of the incidence of school rugby injuries overall. However, this research demonstrates the need for a multischool longitudinal study within South African schools rugby to determine the overall risk.

There are current global concerns surrounding the lifestyle behaviours and future health and well-being of youth. One concept that has gained traction to address these concerns is Physical Literacy (PL). Organised youth sport is one context that can promote PL, offering multiple benefits coupled with a range of challenges. This leading article aims to provide a balanced overview of the key challenges associated with supporting PL within youth sport and offers solutions to overcome these challenges. The first challenge focuses upon attracting youth (and parents) to sport through increasing recruitment against social constraints (e.g., socioeconomic), popular entertainment (e.g., streaming) and family issues (e.g., scheduling). The second centres on retaining children in sport to maximise participation through the appropriate design, organisation and delivery of training and competition opportunities. The final challenge relates to the talent pathway and how sports can structure (e.g., [de]selection) and deliver (e.g., training intensification) a pathway to ensure that all youth athletes flourish along their PL journey. Our solutions focus on organisations (e.g., national governing bodies, clubs) understanding and considering, 1) PL as an individual’s relationship with movement and physical activity throughout life, 2) children’s rights (e.g., interests, opportunities, expression of views), and 3) sport policies and practices when designing and delivering sport experiences. Whilst these challenges and solutions are wide ranging and complex, our belief is that the adoption of a PL approach by stakeholders when designing, delivering and enacting sport programs can enhance the experiences of youth involved in sport and ultimately support their lifelong PL journey.

This study investigated the use of a movement assessment protocol for under-14 rugby league players by evaluating the relationships between chronological age, maturation, and anthropometry, and fitness and qualitative movement assessments (QMA) of 84 rugby league players within a talent development environment. A one-way ANOVA showed Quartile 1 players were more mature, taller (173.0±7.4 vs 165.0±8.0 cm) and heavier (72.5 vs 58.7 kg) than Quartile 4 players, with no difference evident for fitness or QMA measures. Earlier maturing players had significantly greater upper body power (5.39±0.46 vs 4.42±0.68 m), 20m speed (3.48±0.14 vs 3.65±0.19s) and power pass QMA (13.88±2.18 vs 12.00±1.98) than later maturing players. Body mass was positively related to power pass fitness (r=0.50) and QMA (r=0.22) scores, with negative relationships found for vertical jump performance (r=-0.24), sprint QMA (r=-.29) and turn off either foot QMA (r=-0.26). There is a need to educate coaches about the use of both fitness testing and qualitative movement assessments to identify talented U14 rugby league players, which potentially reduces relative age and maturational biases.

Long-term athletic development practices have been recommended for the past two decades. However, limited research exists exploring the knowledge and skills required by practitioners to optimise long-term athletic development. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the knowledge, adherence, practices, and challenges of practitioners responsible for delivering long-term athletic development. A mixed methods survey was completed by 236 practitioners (e.g., sport coaches, physical education teachers) consisting of four parts; 1) demographics, 2) knowledge, 3) adherence, and 4) practices and challenges. Quantitative and qualitative data were analysed by Friedman’s analysis of variance and thematic analyses, respectively. Quantitative findings showed practitioners 1) recognised their responsibility for delivering long-term athletic development, 2) have a familiarity with existing developmental models, and 3) had high adherence, focused upon health and wellbeing, to delivering long-term athletic development. However, practices associated with growth and maturity, monitoring and assessment, and the systematic progression and individualisation of training had lower adherence. Qualitative analysis indicated that practitioner’s perceived definitions of athleticism and long-term athletic development were inconsistent, especially according to the psychological components (i.e., confidence). Practitioners’ descriptions of their long-term athletic development practices identified two higher order themes; 1) goals, in which long-term athletic development “is for life” and the importance of “an individual centered journey” highlighted as sub-themes; and 2) realities of delivering long-term athletic development, whereby variety in programme delivery, monitoring development and practical challenges were noted as key priorities. Eight practical challenges were identified including governance and priorities, resources, education, early specialization, high training volumes, staff communication, parents and youth motivation. This mixed method survey highlighted a multitude of knowledge, adherence, practices and challenges towards long-term athletic development. These novel findings can help inform policy to optimise long-term athletic development and to support the complex problem of developing a healthier, fitter and more physically active youth population.

Objectives: To compare the game-play characteristics between the European Super League (ESL) and the National Rugby League (NRL) competitions. Methods: Eleven team performance indicators were extracted from each match played by every ESL and NRL team over their respective 2016 season. Data was averaged, classified according to competition (Two levels: ESL and NRL), and modelled using univariate and multivariate techniques. Specifically, effect size statistics enabled between group comparisons, while non-metric multidimensional scaling enabled multivariate insights into competition dissimilarity. Results: Seven of the 11 performance indicators showed ‘large’ to ‘very large’ effects. Notably, NRL game-play generated fewer ‘line breaks’, ‘errors’, ‘tackles’ and ‘dummy half runs’ relative to ESL game-play (d >1.2). Despite the NRL generating fewer ‘all runs’ (d = 1.27 [0.57-1.95]), game-play in this competition generated greater ‘all run distances’ relative to the ESL (d = 1.78 [1.02-2.51]). Non-metric multidimensional scaling revealed clear multivariate competition dissimilarity, with ESL and NRL teams orienting distinctive positions on the ordination surface. Further, there was a greater spread in the relative positioning of NRL teams compared to ESL teams, indicating greater team dissimilarity within the NRL. Conclusions: Our observations may be explained by differing competition rule interpretations, in addition to differing game strategies and player skill capabilities. Both coaches and talent recruitment managers associated with these competitions may consider our data to assist with the identification and recruitment of suitable players from these respective competitions.

Talent development environments (TDEs) in English soccer have been a focus of increasing attention (Gledhill, Harwood, & Forsdyke, 2017, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 31, 93-112). There are concerns around balancing positive and negative subjective (e.g., psychological, social) and functional (e.g., educational) outcomes, (Rongen, Mckenna, Cobley & Till, 2018, Sport Medicine, 4, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-018-0135-2). Player’s perceptions of their environment have been previously explored using questionnaire data (Mills, Butt, Maynard & Harwood, 2014, International Journal of Sport Science and Coaching, 9, 1457-1472). However, such instruments have since been modified and adapted making meaningful interpretations problematic. The aim of this study was to investigate player perspectives of the talent development environment within English elite youth soccer academies using the most contemporary research instrument. After institutional ethical approval all participants completed the Talent Development Environment Questionnaire-5 (TDEQ-5; Li, Wang, Young, Pyun & Martindale, 2015, Journal of Sports Sciences, 33,1831-1843) in season. The TDEQ-25, the most current version, consisted of 25 items (scored out of six; long term development focus (five items), holistic quality preparation (seven items), support network (four items), communication (four items) and alignment of expectations (five items). Ninety elite youth soccer players (Mage = 17.8+0.5 years) participated in the study. The sample consisted of players from Category 1 (n=15), Category 3 (n=56) and Category 4 (n=19) soccer academies. Subscale-level analysis revealed that participants scored highest for long term development (4.73 + 0.68), support network (4.68 + 0.77), alignment of expectations (4.49 + 0.85), communication (4.29 + 1.03) and lowest for Holistic Quality Preparation (3.57+ 0.89). Item level analysis using a quartile methodology allowed for easy identification areas for strength and development respectively (Gledhill & Harwood, 2017, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 0, 1-11). The top 25% of items comprised of long-term development (n=3) and support network (n= 2). The bottom 25% of items comprised of holistic quality preparation (n= 5). The results present soccer practitioners, including coaches, with key information about the player perceptions of the TDE within elite academy soccer. Long-term development (e.g. fundamental training and rounded development) and Support network (e.g. parents and schools) were seen as strengths, whereas Holistic quality preparation (e.g. caring coach, mental preparation, and balanced life) were seen as areas for development.

Purpose: Sled towing has been shown to be an effective method to enhance the physical qualities in youth athletes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of a 6-week sled towing intervention on muscular strength, speed and power in elite youth soccer players of differing maturity status. Method: Seventy-three male elite youth soccer players aged 12–18 years (Pre-Peak Height Velocity [PHV] n=25; Circa-PHV n=24; Post-PHV n=24) participated in this study from one professional soccer academy. Sprint assessments (10 and 30 m), countermovement jump and isometric mid-thigh pull were undertaken before (T1) and after (T2) a 6-week intervention. The training intervention consisted of 6 weeks (2 x per week, 10 sprints over 20 m distance) of resisted sled towing (linear progression 10 to 30% of body mass) during the competitive season. Bayesian regression models analysed differences between T1 and T2 within each maturity group. Results: There were minimal changes in strength, speed and power (p=0.35-0.80) for each maturity group across the 6-week intervention. Where there were changes with greater certainty, they are unlikely to represent real effect due to higher regression to the mean (RTM). Conclusion: It appears that a 6-week sled towing training programme with loadings of 10-30% body mass only maintains physical qualities in elite youth soccer players Pre-, Circa-, and Post-PHV. Further research is required to determine the effectiveness of this training method in long-term athletic development programmes.

© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2020. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ. Using an expert consensus-based approach, a rugby union Video Analysis Consensus (RUVAC) group was formed to develop a framework for video analysis research in rugby union. The aim of the framework is to improve the consistency of video analysis work in rugby union and help enhance the overall quality of future research in the sport. To reach consensus, a systematic review and Delphi method study design was used. After a systematic search of the literature, 17 articles were used to develop the final framework that described and defined key actions and events in rugby union (rugby). Thereafter, a group of researchers and practitioners with experience and expertise in rugby video analysis formed the RUVAC group. Each member of the group examined the framework of descriptors and definitions and rated their level of agreement on a 5-point agreement Likert scale (1: Strongly disagree; 2: Disagree; 3: Neitheragree or disagree; 4: Agree; 5: Strongly agree). The mean rating of agreement on the five-point scale (1: Strongly disagree; 5: Strongly agree) was 4.6 (4.3-4.9), 4.6 (4.4-4.9), 4.7 (4.5-4.9), 4.8 (4.6-5.0) and 4.8 (4.6-5.0) for the tackle, ruck, scrum, line-out and maul, respectively. The RUVAC group recommends using this consensus as the starting framework when conducting rugby video analysis research. Which variables to use (if not all) depends on the objectives of the study. Furthermore, the intention of this consensus is to help integrate video data with other data (eg, injury surveillance).

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the criterion and construct validity of an isometric mid-thigh pull dynamometer to assess whole body strength in professional rugby league players. Methods: Fifty-six male rugby league players, (33 senior and 23 youth professional players) performed four isometric mid-thigh pull efforts (i.e. two on the dynamometer and two on the force platform) in a randomised and counterbalanced order. Results: Isometric peak force was underestimated (P<0.05) using the dynamometer compared to the force platform (95% LoA: -213.5 ± 342.6 N). Linear regression showed that peak force derived from the dynamometer explained 85% (adjusted R2 = 0.85, SEE = 173 N) of the variance in the dependent variable, with the following prediction equation derived: predicted peak force = [1.046 * dynamometer peak force] + 117.594. Cross-validation revealed a non-significant bias (P>0.05) between the predicted and peak force from the force platform, and an adjusted R2 (79.6%), that represented shrinkage of 0.4% relative to the cross-validation model (80%). Peak force was greater for the senior compared to youth professionals using the dynamometer (2261.2 ± 222 cf. 1725.1 ± 298.0 N, respectively; P<0.05). Conclusion: The isometric mid-thigh pull assessed using a dynamometer underestimates criterion peak force but is capable of distinguishing muscle function characteristics between professional rugby league players of different standards.

This chapter aims to introduce the content of the Young Rugby Player: Science and Application book. This is achieved by summarising the codes of rugby (union and league) and introducing the concept of youth athletic development and its importance for all young rugby players. A key aspect here is providing participation, performance and development goals for all young rugby players regardless of their age, ability and experience. To support this, an applied example of the England Rugby Football Unions’ Age Grade Rugby system is presented. This applied example showcases how a national organisation has developed a system to support player participation, performance and development related to the needs of young rugby players. The chapter then concludes with a short and concise summary of each chapter, which are all key to supporting organisations and stakeholders in providing evidence-informed practices to young rugby players across the world.

The systems, models and programmes designed to identify and provide for the development of talented young people in sport continue to evolve in their complexity and comprehensiveness, often driven by national interests of doing well in sport. The influences of the approach developed in the German Democratic Republic still remain, with a continued focus on the physical determinants of performance in sport. However, such influences are now complemented by due consideration for the holistic development of young people who happen to be talented in sport. As a field of enquiry talent identification and development demands a multidisciplinary approach and those that work directly with young people require a sound interdisciplinary understanding of the key disciplinary contributions. Selection for performance with a focus on the immediate or short term goals and aspirations of important others are still too often confused with talent identification and development. In contrast, some of the most comprehensive examples of talent identification and development programmes in sport analyse the performer's activity from end to start (ie, they start from an accessible result and work backwards in terms of understanding the processes of preparation and development that are the required building blocks in order to get an individual young performer to their accessible endpoint). This presentation will draw on a range of theoretical and disciplinary perspectives, as well as providing some examples from sport, to identify the contemporary issues in talent identification and development of concern to those who plan and practice it, but mostly importantly for those young people that experience it.

The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the postactivation potentiation (PAP) effects of both dynamic and isometric maximum voluntary contractions (MVCs) on sprint and jump performance and establish whether PAP methods could be used effectively in warm up protocols for soccer players. Twelve male soccer players performed 4 warm up protocols in a cross-over, randomized, and counterbalanced design. In addition to a control warm up, subjects performed deadlift (5 repetitions at 5 repetitions maximum), tuck jump (5 repetitions), and isometric MVC knee extensions (3 repetitions for 3 s) as PAP treatments in an otherwise identical warm up protocol. After each treatment, the subjects underwent 3 10 m and 20 m sprints 4, 5, and 6 minutes post-warm up and 3 vertical jumps (VJ) at 7, 8, and 9 minutes post-warm up. Repeated measures analysis of variance showed no significant differences in the first 10 m (p = 0.258) and 20 m (p = 0.253) sprint and VJ (p = 0.703) performance and the average 10 m (p = 0.215), 20 m (p = 0.388), and VJ (p = 0.529) performance between conditions. There were also no significant differences in performance responses between the strongest and weakest subjects, but large variations in individual responses were found between the subjects. The findings suggest that there was no significant group PAP effect on sprint and jump performance after dynamic and isometric MVCs compared with a control warm up protocol. However, the large variation in individual responses (-7.1% to +8.2%) suggests PAP should be considered on an individual basis. Factors such as method, volume, load, recovery, and interindividual variability of PAP must be considered in the practical application of PAP and the rigorous research design of future studies to evaluate the potential for performance enhancement.

The systems, models and programmes designed to identify and provide for the development of talented young people in sport continue to evolve in their complexity and comprehensiveness, often driven by national interests of doing well in sport. The influences of the approach developed in the German Democratic Republic still remain, with a continued focus on the physical determinants of performance in sport. However, such influences are now complemented by due consideration for the holistic development of young people who happen to be talented in sport. As a field of enquiry talent identification and development demands a multidisciplinary approach and those that work directly with young people require a sound interdisciplinary understanding of the key disciplinary contributions. Selection for performance with a focus on the immediate or short term goals and aspirations of important others are still too often confused with talent identification and development. In contrast, some of the most comprehensive examples of talent identification and development programmes in sport analyse the performer's activity from end to start (ie, they start from an accessible result and work backwards in terms of understanding the processes of preparation and development that are the required building blocks in order to get an individual young performer to their accessible endpoint). This presentation will draw on a range of theoretical and disciplinary perspectives, as well as providing some examples from sport, to identify the contemporary issues in talent identification and development of concern to those who plan and practice it, but mostly importantly for those young people that experience it.

In youth rugby union matches, tackle-related injuries account for 60% of all injuries, 62% of concussion injuries and almost 50% of spinal cord injuries (youth and amateur). Because of this high risk of injury, the inclusion of the tackle in youth rugby has been a topic of discussion in the public and a high priority research area for World Rugby. What a coach knows and his/her attitude toward player safety directly impacts the risk and performance profile of a player. The purpose of this study is to describe the tackle knowledge, attitudes and training behaviours of youth rugby coaches. The entire population of Western Province Rugby Union Premier A1 division (highest level of school rugby) under-19 rugby coaches (n = 8) completed a knowledge and attitude questionnaire and 96 field-training sessions were observed over four weeks. Coaches rated tackling (mean 3.9, 95% confidence interval 3.3–4.4), rucking (mean 3.8, 95% confidence interval 3.0–4.5) and ball-carrying (mean 3.6, 95% confidence interval 2.6–4.6) as high-risk of injury facets of play (H = 30.8, p < 0.001). Coaching proper technique was rated as very important for safety (mean 4.6, 95% confidence interval 4.2–5.0) and performance (mean 4.8, 95% confidence interval 4.4–5.0, U = 28, p > 0.05). Of the 96 observed training sessions, tackle training was recorded 16% of the time (vs. 84% no tackle training, p < 0.001). Coaches were aware of the risk of injury in the tackle and rated the coaching of proper technique of utmost importance. These positive knowledge and attitudes did not transfer into their tackle training. The discrepancy between coaches' tackle knowledge and attitudes, and their training of the tackle might be related to how competent they believe themselves to be in delivering tackle training.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the anthropometry and fitness, and change in these characteristics over time, of youth rugby league players by using maturity status to determine annual categories instead of traditional chronological annual-age grouping. One hundred and twenty one male rugby league players were assessed using anthropometric (i.e., height, sitting height, body mass and sum of four skinfolds) and fitness (i.e., vertical jump, medicine ball chest throw, 10m and 20m sprint and multi stage fitness test; MSFT) measures over a 5 year period. Each player was classified into one of six maturity groups based on their maturity offset (Years from Peak Height Velocity; i.e., 1.5 YPHV). MANOVA analyses identified significant (p<0.001) main effects for maturity group for cross-sectional characteristics and longitudinal change in performance over time. Analyses demonstrated that more mature groups had greater anthropometric and fitness characteristics, except for endurance performance (MSFT -2.5 YPHV = 1872 ± 18 m vs 2.5 YPHV = 1675 ± 275m). For longitudinal changes in characteristics over time, a significant effect was only identified for height and sitting height (p<0.05). These findings provide comparative data for anthropometric and fitness characteristics and change in performance over time in accordance to maturity status within youth rugby league players. Classifying players into annual maturity groups may be an additional or alternative assessment method for evaluating anthropometry and fitness performance in adolescent populations. Further, tracking performance changes over time, especially in relation to maturation, may reduce the limitations associated with chronological annual-age grouping.

Objectives Contact with the head should be avoided during a rugby league tackle, given the inherent risks of head injuries. This study aimed to characterise a sample of tackles, retrospectively identified as resulting in a potential head injury by the Rugby Football League (RFL) match review panel. Design Retrospective video analysis study. Methods 746 tackles, identified by the RFL match review panel from the men's 2018 and 2019 Super League seasons, were analysed. Video clips were coded using an adapted analysis framework, characterising tackle stage, head contact, affected player, offending player/surface, offending body part/surface and tackle sanctioning. Data were reported as frequencies and percentages. Results The majority of tackles resulting in a potential head injury occurred in the initial tackle contact stage (n = 590, 79.2%). The ball‐carrier was most frequently affected (n = 372, 49.9%) compared to initial tacklers (n = 213, 28.6%). The initial tackler was the most frequently impacting player (n = 268, 36.0%), with the majority of potential head injuries occurring from direct head contact by the arm (n = 230, 34.1%), shoulder (n = 170, 25.2%) and head/neck (n = 145, 21.5%) of the impacting player. Head contact was present in 90.6% (n = 675) of the tackles resulting in a potential head injury. Of the sample of tackles, 16.1% (n = 109) of direct head contact events received a sanction from on‐field match officials. Conclusion The initial tackle contact between the ball‐carrier and initial tackler remains the area of focus for research into potential head injuries in elite‐level men's rugby league, to improve awareness and understanding of the mechanisms of injury.

Despite a robust body of evidence supporting both the need for and the effectiveness of physical fitness interventions in children aged 5–11, global fitness levels in this age group continue to decline. This systematic scoping review interrogates a critical, often overlooked dimension of this paradox: the pedagogy of fitness intervention design and delivery. By analysing 106 primary research studies, the review exposes a consistent pattern. Interventions are predominantly highly structured (89%), rarely foster a mastery-oriented motivational climate (only 11%), and fail to report practitioner behaviours (65%). While most interventions yielded positive fitness outcomes, these gains were achieved without the use of pedagogical strategies known to support engagement, autonomy, and long-term adherence in children. This suggests that current approaches may achieve short-term physiological improvements but are limited in cultivating the motivational and developmental conditions necessary for sustained impact. The findings underscore a pressing need for future research to move beyond the "what" of fitness programming and rigorously address the "how." Embedding and explicitly reporting pedagogical elements—such as supportive practitioner behaviours, autonomy-supportive structures, and mastery climates—could transform fitness interventions into developmentally appropriate, engaging, and sustainable experiences for children. Without this shift, we risk perpetuating interventions that are effective in the lab but ineffective in life.

This study compared the influence of match status (drawing, losing, or winning) and possession status (in-possession, out-of-possession, or ball-out-of-play) on the physical and technical characteristics of U14 and U16 elite youth female soccer match-play. Data were collected from 189 female academy players during 45 competitive matches, resulting in 387 match observations. Linear mixed models estimated relative; total distance, high-speed running (≥3.00 m·s−1), very high-speed running (≥4.83 m·s−1), and sprinting (≥5.76 m·s−1) distance according to match status and possession status, and 21 technical variables according to match status. Differences in physical and technical characteristics were observed between and within age-groups, dependent upon match status and possession status. Regardless of match status, both age-groups covered greater distances when the ball was in-play compared to ball-out-of-play (107–130 vs 58–68 m·min−1). U16s covered greater distances when out-of-possession than in-possession, regardless of match status. Whilst U14s covered greater distances out-of-possession when drawing or losing only. Differences in physical and technical characteristics when drawing, losing, or winning, suggest a change in playing style according to match status, likely in an attempt to influence or maintain the score-line. These findings have practical implications for coaching, talent identification and development practices within youth female soccer.

Professional soccer is arguably more competitive than ever. The substantial financial and commercial rewards of winning international competitions. This chapter explains the challenges associated with talent identification and development of youths and why it may be better to stop thinking about talent per se; and second, to present six principles for establishing talent development environments (TDEs) in grassroots soccer that can be applied by a range of stakeholders (e.g., coaches, parents, and practitioners). In addition, effective system resourcing requires planning for other elements of the sport system related to long-term success, such as effectively educating and training coaches to be able to adequately implement the processes of identification and development and/or identifying emergent areas of research that might have value for future coaching and athlete development practice. Talent identification and development programmes have traditionally been associated with one primary goal.

Multidisciplinary profiling provides coaches with key information to augment their (de)selection decisions. These profiles often encompass objective and subjective data in the form of signs (isolated assessments), samples (contextualised assessments), and subjective expert opinion (SEO). Whilst multiple sources of information are considered by coach’s during their decision-making, research exploring the extent to which objective and subjective multidisciplinary information can classify (de)selection is limited. Multidisciplinary data (physical profiling, match statistics, coach match ratings) was collected on 58 Under-16 (n=20) and Under-18 (n=38) youth male soccer players from a single academy in the United Kingdom. Group-level differences between selected (n=39) and deselected (n=24) players were explored, and binary logistic regression models were created to classify (de)selection. Analysis revealed a significant difference between selected and deselected players for match ratings (p<0.0001), 505 left foot (p<0.01), frequency of passes, percentage of successful aerial duels, and percentage of accurate crosses (p<0.05). A classification model containing signs, samples, and SEO data demonstrated the best model fit (AIC = 72.63), the highest discriminatory power (AUC = 0.79), and classified players with the greatest accuracy (78%) for (de)selection purposes. The use of signs, samples, and SEO can support (de)selection decisions but fails to fully represent the complexity of the (de)selection process.

This text is essential reading for all scientists, students and applied researchers wanting to develop world-class, evidence-based programmes for their youth athletes.

ABSTRACT

This review aimed to (1) systematically review the scientific literature evaluating the match-play characteristics of women's soccer, (2) determine the methods adopted to quantify match-play characteristics of women's soccer, and (3) present the physical, technical and tactical characteristics of women's soccer match-play across age-groups, playing standards and playing positions. A systematic search of electronic databases was conducted in May 2021; keywords relating to the population, soccer and match-play characteristics were used. Studies which quantified physical, technical or tactical performance of women's soccer players during match-play were included. Excluded studies included adapted match-play formats and training studies. Sixty-nine studies met the eligibility criteria. Studies predominantly quantified match-play characteristics of senior international (n = 27) and domestic (n = 30) women's soccer match-play, with only seven studies reporting youth match-play characteristics. Physical (n = 47), technical (n = 26) and tactical characteristics (n = 2) were reported as whole-match (n = 65), half-match (n = 21), segmental (n = 17) or peak (n = 8) characteristics. Beyond age-groups, playing standard, and playing position, fourteen studies quantified the impact of contextual factors, such as environment or match outcome, on match-play characteristics. Distance was the most commonly reported variable (n = 43), as outfield women's soccer players covered a total distance of 5480-11160 m during match-play. This systematic review highlights that physical match-performance increases between age-groups and playing standards, and differs between playing positions. However, further research is warranted to understand potential differences in technical and tactical match-performance. Coaches and practitioners can use the evidence presented within this review to inform population-specific practices, however, they should be mindful of important methodological limitations within the literature (e.g. inconsistent velocity and acceleration/deceleration thresholds). Future research should attempt to integrate physical, technical and tactical characteristics as opposed to quantifying characteristics in isolation, to gain a deeper and more holistic insight into match-performance.

THE PRIZE AND PRICE OF BEING TALENTED: THE EXPERT PERSPECTIVE. Fieke Rongen, Leeds Metropolitan University, United Kingdom Jim McKenna, Leeds Metropolitan University, United Kingdom Kevin Till, Leeds Metropolitan University, United Kingdom Stephen Cobley, University of Sydney, Australia Introduction Intensive Talent Development programmes (TDPs) are widely used to capture athletic potential early to accelerate progression into elite performance. However, little research has evaluated the (end-) outcomes associated with engagement within TDPs, either for the performance aspect (Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams, & Philippaerts, 2008) or for the simultaneous impact on other life-domains, such as education, social, psychological and identity development. Methods To begin an examination of these outcomes in youth sport, this study attempted to generate an ‘in-depth’ understanding of the experiential knowledge and perspectives of coaching experts working within such programmes (Martindale, Collins, & Abraham, 2007). Fifteen interviews were conducted across a range of UK sports, then transcribed verbatim and analysed using thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Results Experts indicated that TDPs aim not only to develop youngsters athletically, but also ‘holistically’. TDPs were perceived as having a strong positive impact on a youth’s athletic development, facilitating their progression towards and into elite sports. In addition, participating in a TDP was perceived as reaching into many other life domains, including social, psychological and academic/vocational development. This impact was not necessarily intended, yet was evaluated positively. Being involved in TDPs was perceived as offering something ‘bigger than sport’. Even the less successful athletes, including those who drop out, made considerable gains and achieved important ‘take-aways’ from their experience, e.g., life skills and experience that transfer to education and employment. Talent development experts acknowledged that participants’ time investment into talent development is huge and hinges on making substantial sacrifices. While the risks of injury, overtraining and developing an athletic identity are acknowledged, experts felt these risks were managed well within their programmes. Discussion & Conclusion In talking about the impact of TDPs experts focus on the positive worth of their programmes, which they articulated by emphasising the positives of the experience; these are the athletic and non-athletic prizes. With such valuable prizes, the sacrifices and hardships of being in a TDP are deemed ‘worth it’. Potentially this overlooks the price paid by athletes for being part of a TDP. On the one hand, the perception of risks being well-managed within these specific TDPs may reflect the actual expertise of these particular coaches. On the other hand, this ‘it’s-worth-it’ mind-set may reflect the dominance of the performance narrative in elite sport cultures (Douglas & Carless, 2009) which prescribes a single-minded pursuit of progress which risks disregarding the real-life impact of involvement. References Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. doi: 10.1191/1478088706qp063oa Douglas, K., & Carless, D. (2009). Abandoning The Performance Narrative: Two Women's Stories of Transition from Professional Sport. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21(2), 213-230. Martindale, R. J. J., Collins, D., & Abraham, A. (2007). Effective Talent Development: The Elite Coach Perspective in UK Sport. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 19(2), 187-206. doi: 10.1080/10413200701188944 Vaeyens, R., Lenoir, M., Williams, A. M., & Philippaerts, R. M. (2008). Talent identification and development programmes in sport: Current models and future directions. Sports Medicine, 38(9), 703-714.

OBJECTIVES The current study retrospectively compared the physical qualities of elite academy rugby league players (aged 16-19 years) by career attainment level (i.e., academy or professional). DESIGN: Retrospective cross-sectional and longitudinal design. METHODS: Eighty-one academy rugby league players were assessed for physical qualities (height, body mass, skinfolds, speed, momentum, vertical jump, Yo-Yo Level 1 and 1-RM squat, bench press and prone row) at the Under 17-19 age categories between 2007 and 2012. Player's career attainment level was determined in 2014. Longitudinal changes in physical qualities between Under 17 and 19s were compared by career attainment level. RESULTS: Professional players demonstrated moderate significant advantages for height (d=0.98) and 1-RM squat (d=0.66) at the Under 17s, 1-RM bench press (d=0.76) at the Under 18s and 1-RM prone row (d=0.73) at the Under 19s age categories when compared to academy players. When assessed longitudinally (Under 17s-19s), professional players significantly outperformed academy players for 1-RM squat (η2=0.20). Professional players also demonstrated greater increases in body mass (8.2 vs. 2.9kg) and 10m momentum (47 vs. 17kgs-1) than academy players between the Under 17s and 19s. CONCLUSIONS: Advanced physical qualities, particularly height and absolute strength, within 16-19 year old players may contribute to attaining professional status in rugby league. Further, the development of body mass and momentum for players within an academy is an important consideration in the progress towards professional rugby league. Therefore, practitioners should aim to identify and develop the physical qualities, especially size and strength, within academy rugby league players.

Talent identification and development systems (TIDS) are commonly used in professional sport to convert youth athletes into sporting stars of the future. Acknowledging that only a few athletes can "make it," the necessity and healthiness of TIDS have recently been questioned based on their increased professionalism, high training, and competition volumes, but limited effectiveness. In this short communication, we suggest that the key issues associated with TIDS are not due to their overall concept, but with how they are designed and implemented. It is recommended that researchers and practitioners determine the worth and value of TIDS by also evaluating the positive health of the athlete rather than solely focusing on performance outcomes. To achieve this, TIDS staff should shape and develop their values, expectations, and day-to-day routines to achieve positive health outcomes focusing on personal development and an athlete-centered culture. In business, this has been termed the concept of "Deliberately Developmental Organisation." TIDS can deploy the factors (e.g., high-quality staff, expert support services, quality facilities, and learning routines) characteristic of such organizations, to concurrently ensure positive impacts and minimize predictable negative outcomes without losing focus on a drive for sporting performance.

Drawing from skill acquisition and development literature, we present a novel tackle skill training framework. The framework outlines the training purpose (technique proficiency, technique capacity, skill proficiency and skill capacity), skill workload measurements (available information, task difficulty, rating of perceived challenge, skill load), as well as the training conditions and coaching style for the tackle in rugby union. Using this framework and skill load measurements, we propose a pre-season tackle training plan. This tackle skill framework and skill load measurements serve as potential preventive measures for tackle injury risk while improving players’ tackle performance.

The professionalisation of soccer academies has intensified, with youth players exposed to demanding performance focused environments in pursuit of a career in the professional game. Yet, academies are also under increasing pressure to show that they develop players who can function in life beyond soccer. Therefore, this study explored the retrospective views of 13 ex-elite UK youth academy soccer players on whether their time within the academy provided developmental experiences that prepared them for life beyond soccer. We interviewed seven players who successfully progressed into professional contracts and six who did not. Players were recruited from two different academies to explore the developmental outcomes they associated with academy involvement and to unpick how those outcomes were achieved. Our findings showed that, promisingly, time in the academy provided both contracted and non-contracted players with transferable life skills as well as open educational and vocational doors – resulting in the majority of players leaving the environment being ‘(more) ready’ for life. However, these outcomes are not ‘automatic’ and were highly dependent on the interaction between three developmental contextual themes; i) what was demanded by the academy context, ii) what was encouraged within the academy context, and iii) the quality of interpersonal relationships. Beyond this, players’ attitudes, histories and wider socio-contextual influences were important in shaping (future) outcomes. With an eye on providing worthwhile experiences for all youth athletes involved, these findings provide insight into how academy contexts can simultaneously promote performance alongside positive developmental outcomes. Keywords: elite youth soccer, , Positive Youth Development, life skills, dual career, Talent identification and development system outcomes

The Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS) is a popular measure of Athletic Identity (AI). The purpose of the present study was to investigate the factor structure (7-item single factor and 3 factor model; Social Identity, Exclusivity and Negative Affectivity) of the AIMS within youth academy soccer players. A total of 259 male youth academy soccer players aged 12-18 years completed the AIMS. A series of confirmatory factor analyses, independent cluster modelling indicated support for the 7-item single-factor (AI) and the three-factor models but not within the same analysis. The results support the use of AIMS for the measurement of AI in elite male youth soccer players. Practitioners seeking to explore AI in youth soccer populations should use the three-factor model to glean further insight from the three subscales to support the design of more specific interventions where appropriate.

This chapter highlights ethnographic research on the Paralympic sport of track and field athletics in an attempt to unpack the relationships between the dualisms of health/illness and pain/injury and to get a more nuanced understanding of how the embodied practice of high-performance sport impacts upon on the lives of impaired individuals who are traditionally seen as inactive. Attention that the Paralympic Games receives in the national mainstream media is significant considering there is little, if any, attention paid to Paralympic sport in the two years between the summer and winter versions of the Games. In order to unpack this in the cultural environment surrounding the Paralympic sport, ethnographic data from the sport of track and field athletics that illuminate the tension between intense physical activities. The persistent cost of sport-related injury, both from a curative and preventative perspective, continues to grow. When pain and injury 'capture' an elite sporting performer with impairment, health becomes a distant memory.

Introduction: Elite soccer academies represent one of the most common forms of talent development programmes in the UK, yet they are increasingly being challenged regarding their ‘healthiness’ or ‘appropriateness’. The morality of engaging young players in intensive, pressurised, performance focused environments, given that only few can “make it”, has been questioned. Instead, proponents argue that academies offer powerful contexts for positive development, readying players for life. As with any system, it makes sense to see academies as offering a context of impact possibilities; performance and personal, positive and negative, short- and long-term. This study aims to address the shortfall of holistic approaches in evaluating the impact of academy involvement. Methods: A mixed-methods approach was utilised to comprehensively and holistically evaluate the impact of one elite English youth soccer academy. Over one-year, longitudinal quantitative data on physical and psycho-social wellbeing, school report cards and injury were collected from 58 U12-U16 players. In addition, focus groups and peer interviews explored players’ (n=57) perspectives regarding ‘in-time’ impact, whilst semi-structured interviews with both successful and unsuccessful ex-academy players (n=7) explored ‘over-time’ impact. Results & Discussion: Findings revealed a wide range of potential academy impacts and highlight how academy involvement is neither inherently good nor bad but has potential in both directions. Involvement with this specific academy resulted in predominantly positive developmental outcomes regarding enjoyment, perceptions of psycho-social health, wellbeing, personal and social development. Nonetheless, potential risks were identified, including injury, and compromised identity, social and educational development. Combining quantitative and qualitative data, as well as long- and short-term perspectives, produced a more nuanced picture of academy impact, highlighting impacts as interrelated, neither universally stable nor consistent over time. Conclusions: This is one of the first studies to employ a rigorous and integrated mixed-method evaluation, providing a nuanced understanding of the impacts that may emerge from soccer academy involvement. This specific context provided unique and promising insights suggesting that soccer academies can provide a positive developmental context.

© 2019, © 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. To quantify the peak movement and contact demands of National Rugby League (NRL) and European Super League (ESL) competition players were tracked during 10 NRL (166 files) and 10 ESL (143 files) matches using microtechnology devices. The peak 1- to 5-min periods were then calculated for average match speed (m·min−1), and acceleration (m·s−2) when 0, 1, 2, and ≥3 collisions per min occurred. Linear mixed effect models and Cohen’s effect size statistic (± 90%CI) were used to determine the differences in movement profiles when collisions occurred. Compared to no collision periods, as frequency of collisions per minute increased, there were progressive reductions in running speed for most positional groups. The addition of 1 or more collisions per min resulted in average effect size reductions in match speed of −0.14 for NRL forwards, −0.89 for NRL backs, −0.48 for ESL forwards, and −2.41 for ESL backs. ESL forwards had the highest frequency of peak periods involving 3 or more collisions per min, 22% of all periods, followed by NRL forwards (14%), NRL backs (10%) and ESL backs (8%). This study highlights the peak movement and collision demands of professional rugby league competition and allows practitioners to develop training drills that reflect worst case scenarios.

Rugby union is a late specialisation sport. As a consequence, youth players may still be engaged in other activities and sports throughout the year as they transition to rugby specialisation. Limited research exists quantifying rugby union training and matches as well as engagement in other activities and sports. Therefore, the aim of this study was to quantify and compare rugby union training, matches and other activities of elite youth U15 and U16 rugby union players at different stages of the season.

To investigate the effect of training mode (conditioning and skills) on multivariate training load relationships in professional rugby league via principal component analysis. Four measures of training load (internal: heart rate exertion index, session rating of perceived exertion; external: PlayerLoad™, individualised high-speed distance) were collected from 23 professional male rugby league players over the course of one 12-wk preseason period. Training was categorised by mode (skills or conditioning) and then subjected to a principal component analysis. Extraction criteria were set at an eigenvalue of greater than 1. Modes that extracted more than 1 principal component were subject to a Varimax rotation. Skills extracted 1 principal component, explaining 57% of the variance. Conditioning extracted 2 principal components (1st: internal; 2nd: external), explaining 85% of the variance. The presence of multiple training load dimensions (principal components) during conditioning training provides further evidence of the influence of training mode on the ability of individual measures of external or internal training load to capture training variance. Consequently, a combination of internal- and external- training load measures is required during certain training modes.

BACKGROUND: With the increasing professionalisation of youth sports, training load monitoring is increasingly common in adolescent athletes. However, the research examining the relationship between training load and changes in physical qualities, injury, or illness in adolescent athletes is yet to be synthesised in a systematic review. OBJECTIVE: To systematically examine the research assessing internal and external methods of monitoring training load and physical qualities, injury, or illness in adolescent athletes. METHODS: Systematic searches of SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, CINAHL and SCOPUS were undertaken from the earliest possible records to March 2022. Search terms included synonyms relevant to adolescents, athletes, physical qualities, injury, or illness. To be eligible for inclusion, articles were required to: 1) be original research articles; 2) be published in a peer-reviewed journal; 3) participants aged between 10 and 19 years and participating in competitive sport; 4) report a statistical relationship between a measure of internal and/or external load and physical qualities, injury or illness. Articles were screened and assessed for methodological quality. A best-evidence synthesis was conducted to identify trends in the relationships reported. RESULTS: The electronic search yielded 4,125 articles. Following screening and a review of references, 59 articles were included. The most commonly reported load monitoring tools were session ratings of perceived exertion (n = 29) and training duration (n = 22). Results of the best-evidence synthesis identified moderate evidence of positive relationships between resistance training volume load and improvement in strength, and between throw count and injury. However, evidence for other relationships between training load and change in physical qualities, injury, or illness were limited or inconsistent. CONCLUSIONS: Practitioners should consider monitoring resistance training volume load for strength training. Additionally, where appropriate monitoring throw counts may be useful in identifying injury risk. However, given the lack of clear relationships between singular measures of training load with physical qualities, injury, or illness, researchers should consider multivariate methods of analysing training load, as well as factors that may mediate the load-response relationship, such as maturation.

Despite literature highlighting numerous risks to the healthy psychosocial development of youth elite academy soccer players, little of this research is based on high-quality research designs. This study employed a prospective longitudinal cohort design to track psychosocial outcomes of academy involvement within male youth elite soccer players (n = 33, U12-U16 age groups) compared to age-matched soccer-active school pupils (n = 44) over 12 months. Participants completed questionnaires assessing the most commonly raised psychosocial concerns at four equally spaced data collection periods (T1–T4). Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVAs) indicated that, over the year, both groups reported a healthy and improving stress and recovery balance, as well as positive and stable needs satisfaction and physical, psychological and social well-being. Academy players reported stable positive school-related quality of life, whereas school pupils reported increases from T3 to T4. Academy players reported consistent significantly higher total athletic identity and exclusivity of identity. Findings suggest that many concerns around negative psychosocial impacts of soccer academy involvement did not materialise in this context. However, heightened athletic identities remained a concern.

Practitioners prescribe numerous training modes to develop the varied physical qualities professional rugby league players must express during competition. The aim of the current study was to determine how the magnitude of external and internal training load per minute of time differs between modes in professional rugby league players. This data were collected from 17 players across 716 individual sessions (mean (SD) sessions: 42 (13) per player) which were categorised by mode (conditioning, small sided games, skills and sprint training). Derived from global positioning systems (5Hz with 15Hz interpolation), the distances covered within arbitrary speed- and metabolic-power-thresholds were determined to represent the external load. Session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) and individualised training impulse (iTRIMP) represented the internal load. All data were made relative to session duration. The differences in time-relative load methods between each mode were assessed using magnitude based inferences. Small-sided-games and conditioning very likely to almost certainly produced the greatest relative internal and external loads. Sprint training provided players with the greatest sprinting and maximal-power distances without a concomitant increase in internal load. The metabolic-power method complements speed-based quantification of the external load, particularly during smallsided-games and skills training. In practice, establishing normative loads per minute of time for each mode can be useful to plan future training by multiplying this value by the planned session duration.

Soccer academies are among the most common talent development programmes (TDP). While established research has explored the physical, skill and psychological differences associated with TDP involvement (e.g., Kannekens et al., 2009, Journal of Sport Sciences, 27, 807–812; Toering et al., 2009, Journal of Sport Sciences, 27, 1509–1517; Vaeyens et al., 2006, British Journal of Sport Medicine, 40, 928–934), little research has explored psychosocial health and well-being impacts. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the psycho-social health and well-being of junior elite academy soccer players (i.e., TDP involved) in comparison with an age-matched soccer-active school sample (i.e., non-TDP involved). With institutional ethics approval, two all-male groups participated in the study: (i) youth academysoccer players (n=58, age=12.71±1.49 years) and (ii) age-matched soccer-active school pupils (n = 58, age = 12.97 ± 1.27 years). In early season, all the participants completed a comprehensive booklet of validated questionnaires assessing (i) demographics, (ii) stress and recovery (Recovery-Stress Question-naire for athletes: RESTQ; Kellman and Kallus, 2001, Recovery- Stress Questionnaire for Athletes. User Manual), (iii) health-related quality of life (KIDSCREEN-27), (iv) basic psychological need fulfilment (Balanced Measure of Psychological Needs; Sheldon and Hilpert, 2012, Motivation and Emotion, 36, 439–451) and (v) athletic identity development (Athletic Identity Measurement Scale; Brewer and Cornelius, 2001, The Academic Athletic Journal, 15, 103–113). Multivariate analysis of variance identified a significant overall group effect between academy players and school pupils (P < 0.001; ?2 = 0.94).Unsurprisingly, academy players trained for significantly more hours a week (+9.36 h, P < 0.001; ? = 5.42). Academy players also reportedmarginally lower RESTQ-Social stress (Macademy = 1.23 ± 0.78, Mschool = 1.59 ± 0.88; P = 0.052; ? = 0.43) and scored higher on RESTQInjury vulnerability (Macademy = 2.39 ± 1.15, Mschool = 1.90 ± 0.90; P = 0.023; ? = 0.48), RESTQSelf- regulation (Macademy = 4.02 ± 0.99, Mschool = 3.49 ± 1.10; P = 0.039; ? = 0.51) and total athletic identity (Macademy = 39.71 ± 5.10, Mschool = 36.59 ± 5.80; P = 0.022; ? = 0.57), especially on the subscales of negative affectivity (Macademy = 5.81 ± 1.06, Mschool = 5.30 ± 1.18; P = 0.001; ? = 0.45) and exclusivity (Macademy = 5.79 ± 1.00, Mschool = 4.75 ± 1.32; P = 0.025; ? = 0.89). School pupils reported a higher RESTQLack of energy (Macademy = 1.59 ± 0.92, Mschool = 1.87 ± 1.05; P = 0.035; ? = 0.28). No group differences were found for health-related quality of life or basic needs satisfaction. For psychosocial health and well-being, specific differences existed between youth academy soccer players and age-matched school pupils. Contrary to the suggestions that TDP involvement heightens health-related risks (e.g., social isolation, fatigue, burnout), academy players were rarely worse off compared to their counterparts. Indeed, academy players reported lower social stress, higher energy (e.g., “more focused and decisive” – RESTQ-Lack of energy) and performance-related self-regulation (e.g., “I psyched myself up for performance” – RESTQSelf- regulation). However, academy players did perceive themselves as having a stronger athletic identity, which has potential negative health implications (e.g., burnout, lower ability to cope with setbacks), as well as beingmore vulnerable to injuries. These results offer an insightful and valuable starting point in evaluating TDP impacts on athlete health and well-being.

The increased growth and professionalism of women’s football has led to an increased investment in talent identification (ID) and development of players from a young age. Governing bodies are now investing in talent ID and development environments such as academies, which are starting for girls as young as 10-years old, and which are aligned with similar academy structures that are in place in the boy’s and men’s pathway. Talent ID in women’s football has traditionally been based on viewing players in a trial game or training session environment, whereby the players aim to impress coaches. This approach is not informed by scientific evidence, but rather coaches’ subjective preconceived notion of the ideal player, which, when used in isolation, may result in repetitive misjudgements and limited consistency. However, in recent years there has been an increased amount of research exploring talent ID and development in the women’s game. In this chapter, we provide an overview of existing research, case study examples of talent ID challenges and recommendations for talent ID and development practices.

Purpose: Sports scholarship programmes are a common feature internationally for schools to attract and retain sporting student-athletes. Thus, it is important to understand how a sports scholarship programme supports holistic athlete development. The current study presents student-athlete perspectives of the talent development environment (TDE) and the development of dual career (DC) competencies in a sports school scholarship programme and examines the relationships between TDE and DC competencies. Methods: A case-study design was adopted to analyse student-athlete perspectives of a sports scholarship programme using the talent development environment questionnaire (TDEQ-5) and dual career competency questionnaire (DCCQ-A). Results: The TDE was perceived positively (1 = strongly disagree and 6 = strongly agree), with long-term development (5.0 ± 0.3) and alignment of expectations (4.6 ± 0.5) the highest subscales. Support network (4.3 ± 0.4) was the lowest perceived subscale. All DC competencies were considered important by student-athletes. However, student-athletes had a significantly lower perceived possession than importance in 88% of DC competencies. Emotional awareness was the subscale that required the most development. Significant relationships were found between the TDE and DC competencies, including long-term development vs. DC management (r = 0.41) and emotional awareness (r = 0.32), alignment of expectations vs. DC management (r = 0.39), communication vs. emotional awareness (r = 0.36), holistic quality preparation vs. DC management (r = 0.48) and support network vs. DC management (r = 0.38). Conclusion: Student-athletes perceived the TDE positively yet felt the sports scholarship programme could develop their DC competencies further. Perceptions of the TDE relate to DC competencies, especially DC management. Organisations offering sports scholarships should ensure stakeholders recognise the demands of a DC by monitoring the value of such programmes.

Instrumented mouthguards (iMGs) have the potential to quantify head acceleration exposures in sport. The Rugby Football League is looking to deploy iMGs to quantify head acceleration exposures as part of the Tackle and Contact Kinematics, Loads and Exposure (TaCKLE) project. iMGs and associated software platforms are novel, thus limited validation studies exist. The aim of this paper is to describe the methods that will determine the validity (ie, laboratory validation of kinematic measures and on-field validity) and feasibility (ie, player comfort and wearability and practitioner considerations) of available iMGs for quantifying head acceleration events in rugby league. Phase 1 will determine the reliability and validity of iMG kinematic measures (peak linear acceleration, peak rotational velocity, peak rotational acceleration), based on laboratory criterion standards. Players will have three-dimensional dental scans and be provided with available iMGs for phase 2 and phase 3. Phase 2 will determine the on-field validity of iMGs (ie, identifying true positive head acceleration events during a match). Phase 3 will evaluate player perceptions of fit (too loose, too tight, bulky, small/thin, held mouth open, held teeth apart, pain in jaw muscles, uneven bite), comfort (on lips, gum, tongue, teeth) and function (speech, swallowing, dry mouth). Phase 4 will evaluate the practical feasibility of iMGs, as determined by practitioners using the system usability scale (preparing iMG system and managing iMG data). The outcome will provide a systematic and robust assessment of a range of iMGs, which will help inform the suitability of each iMG system for the TaCKLE project.

There is an increasing awareness of the importance of the environment in academy players’ development, yet limited research has investigated players’ perceptions of their talent development environments (TDEs). This study focused on academy soccer players’ perceptions of their TDE and compared perceptions across the English soccer academy categorization (CAT) system. A total of 136 U.K.-based male soccer players (M age = 17.7, SD = 1.03 years) representing all four categories (1 = highest to 4 = lowest) of soccer academies aligned to professional soccer clubs completed the TDE Questionnaire-5 (TDEQ-5). The players within the CAT1 academies had significantly more positive perceptions of their support network (p = .01) and holistic quality preparation (p = .03) than their CAT3 counterparts. Across CAT2–CAT3, holistic quality preparation was the least positively perceived subscale within the TDEQ-5, suggesting the need for additional coach education in this area. Soccer academies should consider how they ensure that all areas of their service are associated with optimal TDEs by offering a well-communicated and holistic development experience for their players to enhance effective personal and player development. The findings may have implications for player experience and associated progression rates of lower categorized soccer academies.

Objectives Quantify and identify factors associated with concussion underreporting in Super League rugby league players. Design Cross sectional survey. Methods During the 2022 season preseason, 422 Men's and Women's Super League players completed an online survey quantifying player demographics, rugby playing history, concussion history, prevalence of, and reasons for underreporting concussion, concussion knowledge and long-term implications and perceptions of concussion. Results Overall, 20% of respondents stated they did not report concussion-related symptoms to medical staff during the 2020 and 2021 seasons. The two most common reasons for underreporting concussion were ‘didn't want to be ruled out of a match’ (35%) and ‘didn't want to let down team’ (24%). 65% of players reported an appropriate level of knowledge about concussion and potential long-term implications at the start of their senior rugby career, versus 89% now. In relation to concussion knowledge, symptoms were correctly identified on 74% of occasions. 57% of players surveyed were concerned about the potential long-term implications from concussion, and 11% of players would encourage their/family members' children to not play rugby league. Conclusions The proportion of Super League players who did not report concussion symptoms was similar to rugby league players in Australia. The main reasons for not reporting concussion appeared to be due to perceptions of what is beneficial for the team, suggesting both performance and medical staff should collectively encourage players to report concussion. A player's attitude towards concussion is potentially an individual modifiable risk factor and should be considered within the concussion management of players.

Despite the athlete monitoring cycle becoming increasingly popular within sport, very little evidence exists with regards to the relationships present between its measures or its relationship with illness incidence in youth athletes. The aim of this thesis was to evaluate the true predictive ability of an integrated athlete monitoring cycle model, incorporating measures of the training dose (training load), training recovery (sleep) and training response (wellness questionnaires (DWB and PRS), countermovement jumps and salivary IgA (s-IgA)), with regards to illness incidence in youth athletes. Study 1 outlined the reliability and usefulness of DWB (poor/marginal), PRS (poor/marginal) and CMJ (good/useful). Despite study 1’s findings, study 2 showed that CMJ was not suitable for use as a training response measure in youth athletes. Studies 3 and 4 supported the use of the sleep quality subscale as a training recovery measure rather than within the DWB training response measure (which was reduced to the four item DWBno-sleep). The overall DWBno-sleep score, fatigue, stress and mood were statistically related to the training recovery, whereas only muscle soreness was related to the training dose. Statistically, PRS was related to both the training dose and recovery. Despite the presence of these statistical relationships, only the effect of training load, including match exposure, on PRS was practically interpretable. Unfortunately, technical issues prevented the true predictive ability of an integrated athlete monitoring cycle model with regards to illness incidence being tested. However, study 5 showed that s-IgA measures could not accurately predict illness in youth athletes. Furthermore, analysis of the longitudinal trends of s-IgA, DWBno-sleep and PRS showed that the subjective fatigue/wellness measures were more responsive to qualitative events than objective measures of immune function. Overall, the results of this thesis provide support for the use of the integrated athlete monitoring cycle in youth athletes, particularly when subjective training response measures are included. However, future research needs to consider the true predictive ability of the proposed integrated athlete monitoring cycle model with regards to illness incidence.

Youth sport has become increasingly professionalised. As a result, youth athletes are involved in formalised talent development environments (TDEs) designed to facilitate their effective and efficient development towards the elite level. However, it is argued that athlete challenges relating to transition efficacy, developmental sacrifice, and health impacts are not comprehensively addressed in these environments. Consequently, athletes can be left with adverse outcomes, affecting them immediately and in the future in sport and life. Increasingly, research has sought to explore the positive and negative outcomes emerging from TDE involvement. In recognition of these outcomes, holistic talent development (HTD) approaches have been recommended, often associated with promoting personal and whole-person development. Despite this recommendation, there is currently no conceptualised and empirically explored model of HTD that captures this landscape. This state of play is particularly surprising considering the popularised use of the concept ‘holistic’, which has become mired in conceptual ambiguity. Adopting a pragmatic approach and using multi-methods, this thesis aimed to develop a model of HTD that was theoretically grounded and practically orientated, conceptualising outcome and environmental components. A working theoretical model was developed from current literature, which was subsequently applied and abductively developed throughout the thesis, incorporating data from athletes, parents and practitioners. Three empirical studies were undertaken. Study 1 examined perceptions of TDE effectiveness across a large multi-sport and country sample from the perspective of athletes (n = 571), parents (n = 759) and practitioners (n = 134). Study two explored practitioner (n = 23) understandings of HTD across six environments, using Appreciative Inquiry interviews. Study 3 explored HTD practice in one cricket TDE through an ethnographic approach with observations and interviews/focus groups with athletes (n = 17), parents (n = 9) and practitioners (n = 6). Corresponding with the data, positive athlete outcomes were framed within three domains (Athletic Performance; Health and Wellbeing; Life Readiness) and six sub-domains (Performance Skills and Characteristics; Health for Development; General Health; Varied Life Identity; Instrumental Life Skills; Prosocial Character). A wide range of TDE features were found to influence HTD athlete outcomes, and these were categorised into four theme-families (Community; Lifelong Outlook; Practitioner-Athlete Relationship; Personal Development). Connections between the outcome and environmental components of the model were explored. HTD outcomes were found to be sensitively influenced by numerous interactive environmental features. Through a rigorous process of conceptual exploration, development, and refinement, this thesis presents a promising model of HTD. This model is grounded in theory, stakeholder-informed and orientated towards practical utility, building upon previous research and providing fresh insight. Those in research and practice may reflexively consider the working model to inform their critical explorations of effective TDEs from a HTD perspective (e.g., programme building and evaluations).

Sports scholarship programmes are used internationally within academic and sporting organisations to attract and develop athletes. Resources such as a fee remission, no cost to training, facilities or accommodation are incentives offered to separate organisations from competitors and attract exceptional candidates. However, despite their global application, very little research explores the effectiveness of these programmes. This professional doctorate project (re)designs a U.K. sports school sports scholarship programme considering principles of ‘talent’, the talent development environment (TDE), dual career (DC) competency development, allocation of resources, holistic development and talent identification (TI) procedures. The project then evaluates this programme and provides reflections in my professional role.The project is grounded in a constructivist approach utilising action research to generate knowledge from personal driven and theory driven data to prescribe pragmatic solutions. Iterative cycles allow for broad theories to be examined, designed, acted and evaluated. Key stakeholder perspectives from both student-athletes, sports coaches and teachers informed the (re)design process. Firstly, staff perspectives were collated to evaluate an established (>12 years) sports scholarship programme alongside student-athlete’s perceptions of the TDE and their possession of important DC competencies. Findings, led to investigating head of sports (HoS) perception of talent through a focus group with thematic analysis identifying staff could not agree on a definition of talent. Subsequently, the term, ‘talent’, was removed from the definition of selecting sports scholars with coaches identifying desirable behaviours and capabilities instead. Alongside, sports coaches completed a questionnaire on the strategy and vision of a sports scholarship programme. Three key purposes of a sports scholarship programme were identified through thematic analysis, including 1) to deliver a holistic development opportunity, 2) to be a marketing strategy and, 3) to recognise student achievements.A financial redesign of the sports scholarship programme was undertaken with two primary aims, 1) to save the school money and 2) ensure student-athlete development was a key factor in strategic and policy decision-making. A remodel was successful in reducing the sports scholarship budget to the school whilst also creating three strands of funding support to student-athletes. Furthermore, it created a fourth strand that allocated a specific budget for the sports scholarship programme to invest in a holistic athlete development programme.The findings from coaches' interpretation of talent initiated the development of a new TI and selection tool spanning multiple sports, and athlete skills and characteristics. The design incorporated both subjective and objective measures and was co-created with coaches to ensure staff confidence in its application. There was an improved robustness in the new application process which included observations and assessments on the athlete’s history, behavioural expectations with the tool providing a total athletic score comprised of technical, tactical, physical and psychosocial qualities. The tool was used successfully as a supportive instrument alongside coaches’ opinion to help minimise subjective biases and make the conversation around student-athlete and sport scholarship selection easier.In summary, the outcomes of the sports scholarship (re)design process have been perceived favourably by colleagues within the school. The iterative cycles of action research have ensured each key domain are continually evaluated and improved. The TDE remains a perceived strength by student-athletes, on the other hand student-athletes perceive DC competency possession as an area of continued development. Coaches share positivity to the new sports scholarship programme (e.g., coherent structure and process) and highlight areas of further development (e.g., marketing for attraction and recruitment). Finally, the new sports scholarship programme received a significant strength from the independent school inspectors which is an extremely rare occurrence. The thesis concludes with five key guiding principles that had supported the research and acknowledges its limitations. In the final chapter I share my personal and professional development from this professional doctorate journey.

Different talent development (TDE) environments exhibit varying training practices in the rugby league talent identity and development systems (TIDS), which may influence rates of talent development and subsequent productivity of each TDE. This study aimed to compare physical qualities and rates of physical development between different rugby league TDEs within the same TIDS, alongside differences between groups of TDEs based on their level of productivity. A sample of 261 youth rugby league players from six academy teams (i.e., TDEs) within the professional TIDS were tested as part of a league-wide fitness testing battery for measures of anthropometrics, strength, power, speed, and cardiovascular fitness. Linear mixed models revealed medium, significant differences in maximum sprint velocity at the beginning of the season (η 2  = 0.05, p = 0.03) and large, significant differences in the development of prone Yo-Yo IR1 distance over time (η 2  = 0.14–0.18, p < 0.001) between TDEs. No significant differences between groups of TDEs based on their productivity were found. These findings indicate that possible variability in the practices of TDEs mostly leads to small or trivial differences in physical qualities and physical development. Differences in physical qualities and physical development do not appear to relate to the productivity of TDEs, therefore TDEs should focus on holistic development to maximise productivity.

The ability of sporting organisations to identify and develop athletic talent into the sporting superstars of tomorrow has significantly grown and intensified in recent years. This chapter focuses on the talent identification step of this process. Talent identification is defined as ‘recognising participants with the potential at an earlier age to become elite performers in the future’ with multiple talent identification systems employed across the world. Talent identification processes can be informed by coach recommendations, training/competition observations and fitness assessments, although a collaborative approach is recommended. Although coaches believe they can identify talent, a multitude of research examining talent has emerged over the last two decades exploring the phenomenon of talent. This chapter reviews some of this research, with a focus on the physical qualities and methods that may be used as talent identification tools. The chapter then presents numerous problems related to talent identification within young athletes including the performance vs potential debate, early identification = early specialisation, annual age grouping and maturity variability, and unidimensional and cross-sectional approaches to talent identification. Numerous potential solutions to help practitioners optimise their talent identification programmes in young athletes are then discussed.

Background: There is growing concern that exposure to head acceleration events may be associated with potential long-term health consequences. Rugby league is a contact sport involving a high number of collisions, and therefore has a high risk of head accelerations. It is therefore important to quantify head acceleration exposure in rugby league. Instrumented mouthguards (iMGs) are a validated means for quantifying head acceleration events (HAEs) and have been implemented within men’s rugby league, however HAEs are yet to be quantified within women’s rugby league. Accordingly, this study implemented iMGs across teams participating in the Women’s Super League competition, with the aim of describing HAEs during matches. Methodology: Seven elite women’s rugby league teams were provided with iMGs, resulting in the collection of iMG data from 84 players, across 116 player matches. In-vivo HAEs were approximated using linear and angular kinematics measured by accelerometers and gyroscopes embedded within iMGs. Peak linear acceleration (PLA; g) and peak angular acceleration (PAA; rad/s2) were calculated to approximate the magnitude of each HAE. Validated machine learning classification algorithms were used to remove false positive events from the dataset. Results: Across 116 player matches, 1389 HAEs were recorded. The median (IQR) number of HAEs per player match was 7 (3 to 18) HAEs per player match. The median (IQR) HAE magnitude was 12 (8.6 to 18.1) g and 982 (657 to 1,723) rad/s2, for PLA and PAA, respectively. Towards the higher end of magnitudes, the 95th percentile magnitude was 36.8 g and 3,740 rad/s2. Conclusion: For the first time, HAEs have been quantified in women’s rugby league matches. Overall, the number of head accelerations per player match is lower than previously reported in men’s rugby league, while the distribution of HAE magnitudes also seems lower.

The dataset represents questionnaire responses evaluating UK-based Strength and Conditioning coaches and Physical education teachers perceptions of motor competence importance. The data was collected in April 2021. 

Physical education (PE) teachers and strength and conditioning (S&C) coaches are well placed to develop motor competence within youth populations. However, both groups’ perceptions of important motor competencies are relatively unknown, especially when considering stage of maturity. Therefore, this study aimed to 1) present PE teachers and S&C coaches’ perceptions of motor competence importance according to stage of maturity; 2) compare perceptions of motor competence between stages of maturity, and between PE teachers and S&C coaches; and 3) explore factors that influence PE teachers and S&C coaches’ perceptions of motor competence importance. Via a mixed-method questionnaire, 47 PE teachers (professional experience=10.3±6.6 years) and 48 S&C coaches (professional experience=8.6±4.8 years) rated the importance of developing 21 motor competencies across four stages of maturity (childhood, pre-peak height velocity [PHV], circa-PHV, and post-PHV) using a Likert-scale (1=not important, 5=very important). Participants also provided open-ended explanations for their perceptions. Frequency analysis indicated that participants rated a broad range of competencies important, with S&C coaches rating more competencies important than PE teachers across all stages of maturity. Mixed-model analysis highlighted several differences in motor competence importance when comparing perceptions between participant groups, and between stages of maturity for PE teachers and S&C coaches. For example, S&C coaches rated strength-based motor competencies less important during childhood (d=-1.83 to -0.43), while PE teachers rated them less important during childhood (d=-2.22 to -0.42) and pre-PHV (d=-1.70 to -0.51) compared to other stages of maturity. Codebook thematic analysis showed several factors that influenced participant’s perceptions of motor competence importance (e.g., participants understanding of themselves). The findings suggest that multiple environments may be required to adequately facilitate motor competence development amongst youth. Coach education should target misunderstandings around the risks of strength-based activity during early stages of maturity and the benefits of developing strength-based motor competencies across youth populations.

Introduction Understanding the physical demands of rugby union can assist coaches in the preparation of players. Match demands in senior players for domestic competitions (Cahill et al., 2013) and international games (Quarrie et al., 2013) are well established. However, despite adolescent rugby union players playing concurrently at various standards, there is no study that has attempted to compare them. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the physical demands of U18 school vs. academy rugby union match play. Methods A full season of games from the academy (6 games) were analysed and matched by six games from the school standard. Each player wore a microtechnology unit which contained a global positioning system and tri-axial accelerometer in addition to a heart rate monitor. The players were spilt into forwards and backs with only players who participated in the entire game included in the subsequent analysis (Forwards; school [n=25], academy [n=21] and Backs; school [n=25], academy [n=24]). All data were analysed using magnitude based inferences. Institutional ethical approval was granted. Results Forwards: Total distance was almost certainly greater in academy forwards (5461 ± 360 vs. 4881 ± 388 m). Distance walking was unclear between the two groups, but jogging, striding and sprinting was almost certainly, very likely and likely greater in academy forwards in comparison to school forwards. PlayerLoadTM slow was possibly greater for academy forwards whilst heart rate mean and maximum was likely lower for academy forwards. Backs: Total distance was very likely greater in academy backs (5597 ± 383 vs. 5260 ± 441 m). Distance walking and sprinting was unclear. Distance jogging was almost certainly greater in the academy backs and striding was possibly greater. PlayerLoadTM slow was possibly greater in academy backs whilst heart rate mean and maximum was unclear between the two groups. Discussion This study shows that academy rugby union provides forwards and backs with a greater physical demand than school players of the same position. The increase in PlayerLoadTM slow suggests an increase in static exertions for academy players. Future research should look to explore the interaction between physical and technical performances between different standards of adolescent rugby union.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the anthropometric, sprint and high-intensity running profiles of English academy rugby union players by playing positions, and to investigate the relationships between anthropometric, sprint and high intensity running characteristics. Data was collected from 67 academy players following the off-season period and consisted of anthropometric (height, body mass, sum of 8 skinfolds [∑SF]), 40 m linear sprint (5, 10, 20 30 & 40 m splits), the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 1(Yo-Yo IRTL-1) and the 30-15 intermittent fitness test (30-15IFT). Forwards displayed greater stature, body mass and ∑SF; sprint times and sprint momentum, with lower high-intensity running ability and sprint velocities than backs. Comparisons between age categories demonstrated body mass and sprint momentum to have the largest differences at consecutive age categories for forwards and backs; whilst 20-40 m sprint velocity was discriminate for forwards between Under 16s, 18s and 21s. Relationships between anthropometric, sprint velocity, momentum and high-intensity running ability demonstrated body mass to negatively impact upon sprint velocity (10 m; r = -0.34 to -0.46); positively affect sprint momentum (e.g., 5 m; r = 0.85 to 0.93), with large to very large negative relationships with the Yo-Yo IRTL-1 (r= -0.65 to -0.74) and 30-15IFT (r= -0.59 to -0.79). These findings suggest that there are distinct anthropometric, sprint and high-intensity running ability differences between and within positions in junior rugby union players. The development of sprint and high-intensity running ability may be impacted by continued increases in body mass as there appears to be a trade-off between momentum, velocity and the ability to complete high-intensity running.

As the development of movement skills are so crucial to a child's involvement in lifelong physical activity and sport, the purpose of this study was to assess the motor proficiency of children aged 4-7years (range=4.3-7.2years), whilst considering gender and socioeconomic status. 369 children (176 females, 193 males, aged=5.96±0.57years) were assessed for fine motor precision, fine motor integration, manual dexterity, bilateral co-ordination, balance, speed and agility, upper-limb co-ordination and strength. The average standard score for all participants was 44.4±8.9, classifying the participants towards the lower end of the average score. Multivariate analysis of covariance identified significant effects for gender (p<0.001) and socioeconomic status (p<0.001). Females outperformed males for fine motor skills and boys outperformed girls for catch and dribble gross motor skills. High socioeconomic status significantly outperformed middle and/or low socioeconomic status for total, fine and gross motor proficiency. Current motor proficiency of primary children aged 4-7years in the UK is just below average with differences evident between gender and socioeconomic status. Teachers and sport coaches working with primary aged children should concentrate on the development of movement skills, whilst considering differences between genders and socioeconomic status.

The physical match demands for professional rugby union are well established (Cahill et al., 2013, Journal of Sports Science, 31, 299–237). However, there is a lack of evidence for adolescent players, especially in the UK. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to quantify and compare the demands placed upon adolescent players representing county teams across three age groups (U16, U18 and U20) and two playing positions (forwards and backs). Two county representative games for each age group were assessed, with a total of 112 independent observations collected. Players were classified into age group categories and by position (forwards; U16 [n = 20], U18 [n = 21], U20 [n = 18] and backs; U16 [n = 15], U18 [n = 19], U20 [n = 19]). Match demands were analyzed via a microtechnology unit (OptimEye S5, Catapult Innovations, Melbourne, Australia) that contained a GPS system and triaxial accelerometer sampling at 10 and 100 Hz, respectively. The magnitudes of difference between age groups within positions for locomotive and accelerometer-based variables were investigated using Cohen’s d effect sizes (±90% CL). Institutional ethical approval was granted. For forwards, unclear differences between age groups were observed for total distance (TD), but relative distance (RD) showed very large (U16 vs. U20; d = −2.87 ± 0.53) and large (U18 vs. U20; d = −1.81 ± 0.52) differences between groups. Moderate effect sizes were found for both maximum sprint velocity (Vmax; d = −1.03 ±0.53) and total sprinting distance (d = −0.78 ± 0.53) between U16 and U20. When normalised for time, PlayerLoadSlowTM (PLslow · min-1) increased with age, showing moderate effects for U16 versus U18 (d = 0.68 ± 0.52) and U16 versus U20 (d = 0.80 ± 0.54). For backs, unclear differences between age groups were observed for TD, but RD showed moderate differences U16 versus U20 (d = −0.88 ± 0.58) and U18 versus U20 (d = −1.01 ± 0.54). Small effect sizes were observed for Vmax (d = −0.52 ± 0.54) and total sprinting distance (d = −0.46 ± 0.54) between U18 and U20, whereas U16 versus U20 showed a small difference for Vmax only (d = −0.46 ± 56). PLslow.min-1 increased with age, demonstrating a moderate difference between U16 and U18 (d = 0.86 ± 0.57) and a small difference between U16 and U20 (d = 0.56 ± 0.57). This study shows that the absolute locomotive demands are similar between age groups, although when expressed relative to time, differences were found. This is likely due to difference in playing time between age groups and the consequent fatigue and/or pacing strategies adopted by players. The increase in PLslowmin-1 with age suggests an increase in static exertions. Future research should look to explore the interaction between physical and technical performances at different ages of adolescent rugby.

There has been recent critique of strength and conditioning (S&C) education for preparing individuals for the interdisciplinary nature of the S&C coaching role. Although recommendations have been provided, conceptualising and creating a framework for designing, delivering and developing theoretical, applied and experiential knowledge domains for the S&C coach is limited. This paper aims to present a conceptual framework for professional judgement and decision-making within S&C coaching. The framework involves six interrelated knowledge domains, based upon coaches understanding of 1) the ‘WHO’ (i.e., their participant); 2) the ‘WHAT’ (i.e., the principles of S&C and the demands of the sport / discipline within which their participant competes); 3) the ‘HOW’ (i.e., principles of learning and skill acquisition); 4) the ‘COACHING PROCESS’ (i.e., their planning, delivering and reflecting [P-D-R] practices); 5) the ‘CONTEXT’ (i.e., the context, culture and politics within which they operate); and 6) their ‘SELF’ (i.e., their own existing knowledge, beliefs, values and behaviours). This framework could be used for aligning S&C coach education with the requirements of the S&C coach role alongside being a useful framework for continued professional development within the industry.

This mixed methods study aimed to assess the agreement between coaches ranking of youth rugby league players compared against objective physical performance data and gather coaches' subjective descriptions of their players performance. Five hundred and eight male rugby league players (U16 n=255, U18 n=253) completed a fitness testing battery of anthropometric and physical performance measures. Subsequently, twenty-two rugby (n =11) and strength and conditioning (S&C) coaches (n =11) ranked each player's physical qualities using a 4-point Likert scale (1 - top 25%; 2 - 25-50%; 3 - 50-75%; and 4 - bottom 25%) and described their performance. U16 S&C coaches displayed fair agreement when assessing players body mass (39.3%, κ = 0.20). U18 rugby coaches demonstrated fair agreement for strength and size (42.5%, κ = 0.23) and body mass (48.7%, κ = 0.31) whilst both U18 rugby and S&C coaches showed fair agreement levels for endurance (39.8%, κ = 0.25, 44.3%, κ = 0.29), respectively. Three higher-order themes were identified from coaches' descriptions of players including physical, rugby and attitude characteristics when evaluating performance. Overall, coaches cannot accurately assess players physical performance against fitness testing data. Though, findings suggest coaches adopt a multidimensional approach when evaluating players performance. Practitioners within talent development systems should utilise both objective and subjective assessments when making decisions regarding players performance.

The purpose of this study was to (a) provide comparative isometric midthigh pull (IMTP) force-time characteristics for elite youth soccer players and (b) determine the effect of age and maturation on IMTP force-time characteristics. Elite male youth soccer players (U12 n = 51; U13 n = 54; U14 n = 56; U15 n = 45; U16 n = 39; and U18 n = 48) across 3 maturity offset groups (Pre n = 117; circa n = 84; and Post–peak height velocity n = 92) performed 2 maximal IMTP trials on a portable force platform (1,000 Hz). Absolute and relative values for peak force (PF) and impulse over 100 and 300 ms were analyzed. A full Bayesian regression model was used to provide probable differences similar to that of a frequentist p value. Advanced age and maturation resulted in superior IMTP force-time characteristics. Peak force demonstrated high probabilities of a difference between all consecutive age groups (p > 0.95). For absolute and relative impulse (100 and 300 ms), only 2 consecutive age groups (U14–15's and U16–18's) demonstrated high probabilities of a difference (p > 0.95) with large effects (d = 0.59–0.93). There were high probable differences between all maturity offset groups for PF and impulse with medium to large effects (d = 0.56–3.80). These were also reduced when expressed relative to body mass (relative PF and relative impulse). This study provides comparative IMTP force-time characteristics of elite male youth soccer players. Practitioners should consider individual maturation status when comparing players given the impact this has on force expression.

Objectives: Due to the complex-systems nature of injuries, the responsibility for injury risk management cannot lie solely within a single domain of professional practice. Interdisciplinary collaboration between technical/tactical coaches, strength and conditioning coaches, team doctors, physical therapists and sport scientists is likely to have a meaningful impact on injury risk. This study describes the application and efficacy of a multidisciplinary approach to reducing team injury risk in professional rugby union. Design: Observational longitudinal cohort study. Methods: Epidemiological injury data was collected from a professional rugby union team for 5 consecutive seasons. Following each season, these data informed multidisciplinary intervention strategies to reduce injury risk. The effectiveness of these strategies was iteratively assessed to inform future interventions. Specific examples of intervention strategies are provided. Results: Overall team injury burden displayed a likely beneficial decrease (-8 %; injury rate ratio (IRR) 0.9, 95%CI 0.9 to 1.0) from 2012 to 2016. This was achieved through a most likely beneficial improvement in non-contact injury burden (-39 %; IRR 0.6, 95%CI 0.6 to 0.7). Contact injury burden was increased, but to a lesser extent (+18 %; IRR 1.2, 95%CI 1.1 to 1.3, most likely harmful) during the same period. Conclusions: The range of skills required to effectively manage complex injury phenomena in professional collision sport crosses disciplinary boundaries. The evidence presented here points to the effectiveness of a multidisciplinary approach to reducing injury risk. This model will likely be applicable across a range of team and individual sports.

Academy rugby league competition is an important step along the pathway to professional status, but little is known about injury at this level of the game. The aim of this research was to establish the nature, incidence and burden of injury in English academy rugby league. Using an observational prospective cohort study design, and a time-loss injury definition, the injury outcomes of three professional rugby league academies were recorded during the 2017 season. A total of 87 injuries occurred in 59 matches for an overall injury incidence of 85 (95%CI 67-103) injuries per 1000 hours played. The mean severity of injury was 22 ± 19 days resulting in an overall injury burden of 1898 (95%CI 1813-1983) days lost per 1000 hours. The tackle event was the most common cause of injury (77% of all injuries). Forwards sustained a greater proportion of injuries than backs (forwards 67% vs. backs 33% of injuries). Concussion (13 (6-20) per 1000 hours) and ankle sprains (11 (4-17) per 1000 hours) were the most commonly diagnosed injuries. The shoulder joint was the most commonly injured site (17 (9-25) per 1000 hours). The incidence of injury for academy rugby league is similar to senior professional rugby league.

INTRODUCTION: Rugby League is an invasion sport characterized by frequent accelerations, decelerations, changes of direction and collisions between players. The game is played world wide at junior and senior age groups and across competitive levels ranging from amateur to elite. Rugby league academy competition is an important step along the pathway to professional player status. Despite the importance of this pathway, to date no research has examined injury risk at senior academy level in England. METHODS: Three professional rugby league academies were recruited to this observational prospective cohort investigation. Eighty-one players were included in the investigation. Physiotherapists from each academy were recruited and remunerated to act as injury surveillance officers throughout the season. Match injuries were recorded using a time-loss definition consistent with the consensus adopted within rugby union. Injury incidence , injury severity and injury burden were all calculated. RESULTS: Injury incidence of 85 <95%CI 67 to 103> injuries/1000 h was observed during the 59 matches played. This equates to 1.5 <95%CI 1.2 to 1.8> time-loss injuries per match. The mean severity of injury was 22 ± 19 days resulting in an overall injury burden of 1870 <95%CI 1785 to 1955 days/1000h>. The tackle event was the most common cause of injury <69% of injuries>, with the tackled player injured more frequently than the tackler . Forwards sustained a greater proportion of injuries than backs and ankle sprains <11, 95%CI 4 to 17 per 1000 h> were the most commonly diagnosed injuries, but the shoulder joint was the most commonly injured site <17, 95%CI 9 to 25 per 1000 h>. CONCLUSION: Overall, the incidence of injury for academy rugby league was similar to that reported in senior professional rugby league <78 injuries / 1000 h> , but the mean severity and overall burden of injury was lower . Injury patterns indicate that academy players are at a higher risk of concussion and shoulder joint injuries than senior professional players. This suggests that the specific focus for injury risk management in academy rugby league should be on players’ tackle technique and prevention strategies for concussion and shoulder injuries. REFERENCES: Fitzpatrick, A. C., Naylor, A. S., Myler, P., & Robertson, C. <2018>. A three-year epidemiological prospective cohort study of rugby league match injuries from the European Super League. Journal of science and medicine in sport, 21<2>, 160-165.

Introduction Age-grade (e.g., U18) rugby union players play in multiple playing levels across a season, including international and academy competition. One method for quantifying the physical characteristics of different playing levels is to calculate the maximum locomotor intensity using relative distance (m·min-1) and high-speed (>5.5 m·s-1) relative distance (HSm·min-1). The aims of the study were to quantify the maximum locomotor intensities from match-play and compare between U18 international and academy levels. Methods In total, 142 U18 male rugby union players provided 232 observations. During match- play each player wore a micro-technology device (S5 Optimeye, Catapult Sports) that contained a global positioning system. Using the raw instantaneous speed (m·s-1) downloaded at 10 Hz, variables were calculated through the use of a 0.1 s rolling mean for time durations (15, 30 s and 1, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 10 min) relevant to age-grade rugby union. Players were split into four positional groups of: front row, back five, scrum-halves, and inside and outside backs. A linear mixed model was used to account for the repeated measurements of players and then results were interpreted with effect sizes (ES) ±90% confidence intervals and classified as trivial (0.00-0.19); small (0.20-0.59); moderate (0.60-1.19) and large (1.20-1.99). Ethics approval was granted from Leeds Beckett University. Results Differences between levels in relative distance were trivial or small for all time durations and positions, with the relative distance ranging from 148 ± 16 to 189 ± 17 m·min-1 in the one-minute duration. High-speed relative distance for one-minute ranged from 26 ± 11 to 71 ± 24 HSm·min-1 and throughout all comparisons were greater in international players. The differences in high-speed relative distance were moderate to large (ES = 1.17 ±0.64 to 1.59 ±0.64) in front row players. The differences between the back five positional groups were small (ES = 0.31 ±0.52 to 0.45 ±0.57) for high-speed relative distance. There were small differences between the groups of scrum halves in the 15 s, 30 s and 1 min durations (ES = 0.56 ±0.79 to 0.59 ±0.78), with moderate to large differences in time durations ≥2 min (ES = 0.82 ±0.87 to 1.24 ±0.93). The differences in high-speed relative distance were trivial to small (ES = 0.02 ±0.51 to 0.39 ±0.58) in the inside and outside backs comparison. Conclusion Relative distance was similar between playing levels but appears to be comparable to data from senior international rugby union match-play in previous studies. There is a greater amount of high-speed relative distance per minute completed during U18 international matches compared to U18 academy matches. Coaches working with rugby players can use this information to appropriately overload the intensity of running, specific to time durations and positions.

Fitness testing is common practice within youth athletes. However, the interpretation of fitness data often occurs within chronological annual-age categories, resulting in athletes being (dis)advantaged due to age or maturity discrepancies. Instead, evaluating fitness performance against rolling averages may be more appropriate. This article presents a novel method for analyzing fitness testing data in youth athletes using Z-scores according to rolling averages for both chronological age and maturity status. This analysis technique allows the dual ability to interpret youth fitness performance according to age and maturation, enhancing accuracy of data interpretation for talent identification, development and strength and conditioning programming.

Motor competency is integral to the long-term athletic development of youths. Strength and conditioning (S&C) coaches are recommended to deliver motor competency interventions, yet there are no studies investigating their perceptions and practices for developing motor competency in youths. Seventy-one S&C coaches (n=67 male; n=4 female) completed an initial and follow up questionnaire using a 5-point Likert scale, rating 1] the importance of developing competence, and 2] how frequently they developed competence across 90 motor competencies. Over 55% of S&C coaches reported a broad range of “important” (69/90) and ”frequently developed” (48/90) motor competencies. The most important motor competency was “deceleration” (4.9±0.3), whilst “hip hinge (bilateral)” was the most practised (4.4±0.5). Upper body pushing and pulling competencies were targeted more than S&C coaches perceived their importance, whilst agility (e.g., turning) competencies were targeted less than their importance. Linear mixed model analysis showed S&C coaches who delivered 3-4 sessions per week targeted 15-18% more motor competencies compared to ≤ 2 sessions per week. Overall, these findings have strong implications for developing motor competency within youths including the reflection of importance vs. practised competencies, coach education programmes, and consideration for how S&C coaches should seek to optimise motor competency development within youths.

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between matchday wellness status and a technical-tactical performance construct during rugby match-play. One hundred and thirty-three male rugby union players (73 forwards and 60 backs) from five under-18 national squads who participated in the under-18 Six Nations competition completed a subjective wellness questionnaire on each matchday morning. Players subjectively rated each item (sleep quality, fatigue, muscle soreness, stress and mood) on a five-point Likert scale to calculate their daily wellness status (i.e., difference between matchday and baseline perceived wellness). Technical-tactical performance during match-play was quantified by coding individual key performance indicators (e.g., number of carries, number of tackles). Partial least squares correlation analysis (PLSCA) was employed to compute the latent variables of perceived wellness status (X matrix) and technical-tactical performance (Y matrix) for each player observation (n=271). The latent variables are a construct of each variable group, enabling higher dimensional data to be visualised more simply. Linear mixed-effect models were later conducted to assess the relationships between the latent variables. The effect of perceived wellness status on technical-tactical performance was statistically significant in forwards (p=0.042), not statistically significant in backs (p=0.120) and accounted for 4.9% and 1.9% variance in the technical-tactical performance construct, respectively. The findings of this study suggest that perceived wellness status can influence technical-tactical match performance, but the practical significance of these findings should be interpreted with caution given the amount of variance in technical-tactical performance accounted by the models.

Poster presentation

This study aimed to investigate rugby league coaches’ perceptions of physical qualities for current and future performance, while also establishing the training practices of Under-16 and Under-19 players. Twenty-four practitioners (rugby coach, strength and conditioning coach) working within nine Super League clubs completed a questionnaire. The questionnaire required practitioners to rank eleven physical qualities (i.e., strength, power, acceleration, maximum speed, aerobic endurance, change of direction, agility, height, body mass, lean mass and fat mass) by importance for current performance, future performance and career longevity according to playing position (forwards, backs, hookers & halves). Practitioners were asked to provide detail on the frequency and duration of each type of training session completed during a typical week throughout each phase of the season; pre-season, in-season (early), in-season (mid), and in-season (late). Typically, practitioners ranked strength, power and acceleration qualities highest, and endurance and anthropometric qualities lowest. The importance of physical qualities varied according to each playing level and position. Training practices of U16 and U19 players differed during each phase of the season, with U19 players undertaking greater training volumes than U16s players. Overall, the physical qualities coaches perceived as most important were not reflected within their training practices. Rugby league practitioners can use this information as a reference source to design long term athletic development plans, prescribe training and during player development procedures. Moreover, these data can inform and improve training practices while influencing the design of pre-season preparatory phases and in-season periods.

The increased growth and professionalism of women’s football have led to an increased investment in talent identification and development of players from a young age. Governing bodies are now investing in talent identification and development environments such as academies, which are starting for girls as young as 10 years, and which are aligned with similar academy structures that are in place in the boys’ and men’s pathway. Talent identification in women’s football has traditionally been based on viewing players in a trial game or training session environment, whereby the players aim to impress coaches. This approach is not informed by scientific evidence, but rather coaches’ subjective preconceived notion of the ideal player, which, when used in isolation, may result in repetitive misjudgements and limited consistency. However, in recent years there has been an increased amount of research exploring talent identification and development in the women’s game. In this chapter, an overview of existing research is provided, as well as case study examples of talent-identification challenges and recommendations for talent identification and development practices.

Introduction The aim of the study was to assess the differences in external loads and movement demands between training and match-play in adolescent rugby union (RU) players. For mean training and match demands to be similar, athletes would have to be exposed to the equivalent loading of multiple matches within their training week, which may be impractical. An alternative analysis of comparing maximum demands instead of mean demands between conditions may offer a more appropriate comparison. Methods Sixty-one adolescent RU players (mean ± SD; age 17.0 ± 0.7 years) were recruited from four teams representing school and regional academy RU. Players were categorised into four independent groups based on playing standard and position; school forwards (SF; n=15), school backs (SB; n=15), academy forwards (AF; n=16) and academy backs (AB; n=15). Global positioning system and tri-axial accelerometer data were obtained from 61 match files during 6 matches, and 152 training files during 15 training sessions. Maximum data from individual training sessions that elicited the highest value for each variable were used in the comparison to match-play. This approach was used to account for variance in specific training objectives for respective sessions (i.e. collision or running focus), as mean data may dilute the magnitude of exposure of specific loads within the training week. Differences between training and match-play measures were analysed using paired t-tests, Cohen’s d effect sizes and 90% confidence interval. Results Within the SF group, training was significantly greater than matches for total and relative high speed running (HSR [≥61% maximum velocity (Vmax)] and HSR·min-1), total and relative very high speed running (VHSR [>90% Vmax] and VHSR·min-1), and relative peak velocity (%Vmax). Contrastingly, in the SB group, training were significantly less than match play for total distance (TD), %Vmax, VHSR and VHSR·min-1. Within the AF group, match-play was significantly greater than training for relative low speed activity (LSA·min-1 [<61% Vmax]). Finally, within the AB group, training was significantly greater than match-play for relative PlayerLoadTM (PL·min-1) and HSR·min-1. Discussion Players from a higher representative standard (i.e. academy) were exposed to external loads and movement demands during their training week comparative to the demands of match-play. However, within schools, due to positional differences during match-play, training sessions may under-prepare backs and over-prepare forwards. Coaches should ensure that training sessions reflect the standard- and position-specific demands of match-play to adequately prepare players for competition.

Data from global positioning system (GPS) technology are typically presented as the distances covered in specific locomotor categories (e.g., walking, jogging, striding, sprinting). Differences are found when categorisations are made using either pre-defined absolute thresholds or thresholds relative to maximum speed. However, there are two distinct methods of using relative speed thresholds currently employed in the literature, although no study has attempted to compare them. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the differences in data when analysing the same GPS files relative to speed, using either a maximum velocity sprint (Vmax) or a maximum velocity achieved during match-play (Vpeak). Following institutional ethics approval, 99 GPS files were analysed from rugby union match-play and split between forwards (n=59) and backs (n=40). The male participants involved were part of a Regional Academy and had the following characteristics (age: 17.5 ± 0.7 years; stature: 183.6 ± 6.6 cm; body mass: 90.6 ± 10.6 kg). Vmax was established by players performing a maximum 40 m sprint, whilst Vpeak was defined as the maximum velocity achieved during each match. The locomotor categories were defined as walking 0-20%, jogging 20-50%, striding 50-80% and sprinting 80-100% (Duthie et al., 2006) of either Vmax or Vpeak. Data were analysed using magnitude based inferences. The mean Vmax and Vpeak for all players were 8.7 ± 0.6 m.s-1 and 7.2 ± 0.9 m.s-1, respectively. There were almost certain differences in walking (2088 ± 298 vs. 1611 ± 435 m), striding (670 ± 244 vs. 1197 ± 375 m) and sprinting (28 ± 29 vs. 145 ± 73 m) between Vmax and Vpeak, for forwards. There was also a likely difference in jogging (2674 ± 313 vs. 2502 ± 301 m). Very likely differences were found for walking (2414 ± 288 vs. 2177 ± 347 m) and striding (708 ± 159 vs. 927 ± 347 m) for backs. There was also an almost certain difference in sprinting (66 ± 41 vs. 151 ± 49 m) whilst an unclear difference was found for striding (2409 ± 433 vs. 2338 ± 352 m) for backs. The use of relative thresholds using Vpeak seems to overestimate the distance covered in striding and sprinting whilst underestimating walking and jogging. Practitioners should look to use Vmax for relative speed thresholds as Vpeak from match-play is likely to change from match-to-match and consequently misrepresent the movement demands that players are exposed to.

Rugby league is a collision team sport played at junior and senior levels worldwide, whereby players require highly developed anthropometric and physical qualities (i.e., speed, change of direction speed, aerobic capacity, muscular strength and power). Within junior levels, professional clubs and national governing bodies implement talent identification and development programmes to support the development of youth (i.e., 13-20 years) rugby league players into professional athletes. This review presents and critically appraises the anthropometric and physical qualities of elite male youth rugby league players aged between 13 and 20 years by age category, playing standard and playing position. Height, body mass, body composition, linear speed, change of direction speed, aerobic capacity, muscular strength and power characteristics are presented and demonstrate that qualities develop with age and differentiate between playing standard and playing position. This highlights the importance of anthropometric and physical qualities for the identification and development of youth rugby league players. However, factors such as maturity status, variability in development, longitudinal monitoring and career attainment should be considered to help understand, identify and develop the physical qualities of youth players. Further extensive research is required into the anthropometric and physical qualities of youth rugby league players, specifically considering national standardized testing batteries, links between physical qualities and match performance, together with intervention studies, to inform the physical development of youth rugby league players for talent identification and development purposes.

This study quantified the field-based external training loads of professional rugby league players using global positioning systems technology across a playing season. Eleven professional rugby league players were monitored during all field-based training activities during the 2014 Super League season. Training sessions undertaken in preseason (n = 211 observations), early (n = 194 observations), middle (n = 171 observations) and late (n = 206 observations) phases of the in-season were averaged for each player and used in the analyses. Large reductions in external training loads between preseason and in-season periods were observed. Within season, a decrease in intensity (relative distance, absolute and relative total-HSR) with a limited change in training duration was observed. These data provide a useful reference for coaches working with similar cohorts, while future research should quantify the adequacy of the training loads reported, considering impact on performance and injury.

Background: Despite its apparent popularity, participation in the sport of rugby union is accompanied by a significant risk of injury. Concerned parties have recently questioned whether this risk is acceptable within school populations. This is difficult to assess within the South African schools’ population as no recent longitudinal injury studies exist. Objectives: To determine the training habits, rugby-related exposure and injury risk within a population of South African high school first team rugby players. Methods: Training and match exposure in both school and provincial competition examined and the resultant injuries were longitudinally observed for the duration of a South African high school rugby season. Results: Match (79, 95%CI 52-105 injuries/1 000 h) and training (7, 95%CI 3-11 injuries /1000h) injury incidences were demonstrated to be greater than previously reported incidences in similar populations in England and Ireland. Weeks where players were exposed to both school and provincial competition (34, 95%CI 19-49 injuries /1 000 h) had significantly (p<0.05) greater injury incidences than during school competition alone (19, 95%CI 12-26 injuries /1 000 h). Conclusions: The injury risk demonstrated was greater than expected and represents reasons for concern. Possible reasons for the high injury incidence recorded may be the frequency of games played within the season, and the overlap of school and provincial competitions. It should be noted that these results were taken from one school over one season and might not be representative of the incidence of school rugby injuries overall. However, this research demonstrates the need for a multischool longitudinal study within South African schools rugby to determine the overall risk.

The whole match demands of rugby union are well established, however it is unclear how these vary during specific phases of play within a match. For example, the influence of phases of play (attacking or defending) on the movement and physical demands are yet to be quantified. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the influence of attacking and defensive phases of play on the movement (e.g., running) and physical (e.g., accelerometer activity) demands for forwards and backs. With institutional ethics approved, 50 male academy rugby union players (age: 17.6 ± 0.6 years; stature: 183.0 ± 6.8 cm; body mass 89.4 ± 10.9 kg) from one regional rugby union academy were tracked during match-play using microsensor technology (Optimeye S5, Catapult Innovations, Melbourne, Australia). 260 observations were collected over 2 seasons (12 matches). Differences in maximum sprint velocity (Vmax), relative distance an§d PlayerLoadTM (PL.min-1) were assessed using magnitude based inferences. The mean length of matches were 74.8 ± 3.3 min, whilst the mean amount of time the ball was in play was 27.4 ± 2.9 min. The mean amount of time spent attacking per match was lower than defending (12.7 ± 3.1 vs. 14.7 ± 2.5 min). There were a lower number of attacking phases (27 ± 9) compared to defensive phases (31 ± 10) whilst the mean phase was similar in length (26 ± 17 vs. 26 ± 18 s). The demands were almost certainly greater when defending compared to attacking for forwards; Vmax (3.3 ± 1.8 vs. 4.1 ± 1.5 m.s-1), relative distance (97.9 ± 53.7 vs. 121.8 ± 48.8 m.min-1) and PL.min-1 (10.6 ± 5.3 vs. 12.7 ± 4.6 AU.min-1). When defending, relative distance was very likely greater (101.6 ± 66.4 vs. 121.4 ± 60.9 m.min-1), and Vmax (3.7 ± 2.1 vs. 4.2 ± 1.8 m.s-1) and PL.min-1 (10.7 ± 7.6 vs. 12.4 ± 7.4 AU.min-1) were both likely greater compared to attacking for backs. The movement and physical demands were consistency greater when defending for both positional groups, although a smaller disparity between phases was observed for backs than forwards. This indicates backs have greater movement demands during attacking phases, which was also reflected in the higher Vmax. The greater PL.min-1 for the forwards during defending suggests a greater involvement in tackles and rucks. These data provide practitioners with reference data when replicating match specific phases of play.

Adolescent rugby union players may participate with multiple teams concurrently, with elite players potentially participating with school, club, regional academy, county and national representative teams simultaneously. The accumulated workloads of these athletes may have a substantial impact on their athletic development, health and wellbeing, with excessive workloads related to both illness and injury (Gabbett et al., 2014, Sports Medicine, 7, 989-1003). Therefore, the aim of this study was to quantify the total accumulated weekly workloads of elite schoolboy rugby union players and examine the differences between playing positions. Following institutional ethics approval, twenty elite schoolboy rugby union players (age 17.4 ± 0.7 years) were recruited from an under-18 regional academy and categorised by playing position; forwards (n=10) and backs (n=10). Each participant was allocated a microtechnology unit (10 Hz global positioning system and accelerometer) to be worn during all rugby training to quantify external loads, whilst internal loads (session-rating of perceived exertion (s-RPE)) for rugby, strength, and conditioning/other training modalities were reported daily using an online training questionnaire. Data were collected during the in-season over a 10-week period, with a total of 97 complete weekly observations (5 ± 3 weeks per participant). Mean weekly data were calculated for each participant to control for multiple and uneven observations. Differences between-positions were analysed using Cohen’s d effect sizes (ES) and magnitude-based inferences. There were unclear differences between forwards and backs for total weekly training volumes (301 ± 107 vs. 301 ± 80 min) and s-RPE (1186 ± 380 vs. 1249 ± 365 AU). However, the total weekly external training loads were substantially different between positions (moderate-large) with backs recording likely-very likely greater total distance (13063 ± 3933 vs. 10195 ± 2242 m), low-speed activity (12142 ± 3672 vs. 9694 ± 2215 m), high-speed running (807 ± 387 vs. 482 ± 174 m), very high-speed running (34 ± 51 vs. 5 ± 8 m), peak velocity (8.0 ± 0.3 vs. 7.1 ± 0.4 m·s-1) and PlayerLoadTM (1246 ± 345 vs. 1002 ± 279 AU). Elite schoolboy rugby union players are exposed to high in-season workloads, which are greater than those previously reported in professional adult players during both in-season (Bradley et al., 2015, European Journal of Sport Science, 15, 469-479), and pre-season (Bradley et al., 2014, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 29, 534-544) training periods. The appropriateness of these high workloads needs to be questioned for optimal athletic development and player welfare.

In late specialisation team sports, adolescent athletes may participate with multiple teams concurrently, as they are not contracted to one particular organisation. Therefore, the monitoring of accumulated training loads can be challenging. In a recent study, manual collection of rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was shown to be robust between 5 minutes and 24-hours post-exercise (Christen et al., 2016, International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, doi: 10.1123/ijspp.2015-0438). If a self-reported measure of global training load such as session-rating of perceived exertion (sRPE; intensity x time (Foster et al., 2001, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 15, 109-115)) was proved valid, it could provide a simple solution for accurate and reliable training load monitoring. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the level of agreement between the criterion session-rating of perceived exertion (sRPE30min) and practical measure of a remote web-based training load questionnaire 24-hours post-training (sRPE24h) in adolescent athletes. A secondary aim was to assess the level of agreement between weekly summated sRPE24h values (ƩsRPE24h) and a weekly web-based training diary (sRPEweekly) for all field-based training accumulated on a subsequent training week. Following institutional ethics approval, thirty-six male adolescent rugby union players (age 16.7 ± 0.5 years) were recruited from a regional academy. Criterion measures (sRPE30min) were recorded by the principle investigator 30-minutes post a field-based training session. Participants then completed the sRPE24h via a web-based training load questionnaire 24-hours post-training, reporting both session time and intensity. In addition, on a subsequent week, participants completed the sRPE24h daily and then completed the sRPEweekly at the end of the week to recall all training times and intensities over those 7-days. The agreement between sRPE30min and sRPE24h, as well as between ƩsRPE24h and sRPEweekly were assessed using mean percentage bias, typical error of the estimate (TEE), and Pearson correlation coefficients, all with 90% confidence limits. There were trivial biases between sRPE30min and sRPE24h for sRPE (0.3%; -0.9, 1.5), with small TEE (4.3%; 3.6, 5.4) and nearly-perfect correlations (0.99; 0.98, 0.99). There were trivial biases between ƩsRPE24h and sRPEweekly for sRPE (5.9%; -2.1, 14.2), with moderate TEE (28.5%; 23.3, 36.9) and very-large correlations (0.87; 0.78, 0.93). The results of this study show that the use of an online daily questionnaire is a valid and robust measure to remotely quantify training loads in adolescent athletes. However, the weekly training diary was found to have a substantial TEE, which would limit practical application.

In talent identification research, most studies have taken a cross-sectional rather than longitudinal approach. However, to improve understanding of factors that contribute to expert performance players should be monitored over a prolonged period (Williams & Reilly, 2000: Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 657–667). The purpose of this study was to identify whether anthropometric and physiological characteristics could discriminate between selection levels when measured longitudinally over a 2-year period in junior Rugby League With institutional ethics approval, 683 Regional selected players completed an anthropometric and physiological battery of tests between 2005 and 2008. Players that were retained at Regional (n=26 age mean 13.60, s=0.27 years) and National (n=13 age mean 13.54, s=0.29 years) levels for three consecutive years were used for analysis. A repeated measures ANOVA was used to examine group differences between selection level (i.e. Regional and National) together with differences in characteristics over time. Findings demonstrate that differences between sum of four skinfolds and V_ O2max, measured by the multi-stage fitness test, exist between Regionaland National retained players which are maintained over a 2-year period with National players outperforming Regional players, however, speed improves at different rates. Although further longitudinal research is required, this study demonstrates that skinfold and V_ O2max measures do discriminate between Regional and National players over a 2-year period, even though such measurements are not used as part of the selection process in junior Rugby League.

In talent identification research, most studies have taken a cross-sectional rather than longitudinal approach. However, to improve understanding of factors that contribute to expert performance players should be monitored over a prolonged period (Williams & Reilly, 2000: Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 657–667). The purpose of this study was to identify whether anthropometric and physiological characteristics could discriminate between selection levels when measured longitudinally over a 2-year period in junior Rugby League With institutional ethics approval, 683 Regional selected players completed an anthropometric and physiological battery of tests between 2005 and 2008. Players that were retained at Regional (n=26 age mean 13.60, s=0.27 years) and National (n=13 age mean 13.54, s=0.29 years) levels for three consecutive years were used for analysis. A repeated measures ANOVA was used to examine group differences between selection level (i.e. Regional and National) together with differences in characteristics over time. Findings demonstrate that differences between sum of four skinfolds and V_ O2max, measured by the multi-stage fitness test, exist between Regionaland National retained players which are maintained over a 2-year period with National players outperforming Regional players, however, speed improves at different rates. Although further longitudinal research is required, this study demonstrates that skinfold and V_ O2max measures do discriminate between Regional and National players over a 2-year period, even though such measurements are not used as part of the selection process in junior Rugby League.

Relative age effects (RAEs), reflecting observed inequalities in participation and attainment as a result of annual age-grouping policies in youth sport, are common in most team sports. The aims of this study were to determine if and when RAEs become apparent in Rugby League, determine how influential variables (e.g., gender) lead and clarify whether player retention at junior representative levels can explain persistent RAEs. Player data were collected for the male and female community games ranging from Under 7s to Senior (N=15,060) levels, junior representative selections (i.e., Regional) and professional players (N=298). Chi-square analyses found significant (P<0.05) uneven birth date distributions beginning at the earliest stages of the game and throughout into senior professionals. In junior representative selections, 47.0% of Regional and 55.7% of National representative players were born in Quartile 1, with RAE risk increasing with performance level. Gender and nationality were also found to moderate RAE risk. When tracking representative juniors, over 50% were retained for similar competition the following season. Findings clearly demonstrate that RAEs exist throughout Rugby League with early selection, performance level and retention processes, appearing to be key contributing factors responsible for RAE persistence.

The present study examined relationships between anthropometric, physiological and selection characteristics of junior (N=683; aged 13–16) representative Rugby League players who underwent a battery of tests (e.g., height; O2max) as part of a national talent development program. Considerate of playing position (categorised as ‘Outside-Backs’, ‘Pivots’, ‘Props’, ‘Backrow’), ‘Props’ were more likely to be the relatively oldest and most mature. However, MANCOVA – with chronological age and maturation controlled – also identified that ‘Props’ were the worst performing on physiological tests. To add, physiological characteristics did not differ according to relative age. Findings suggest that relationships between anthropometric and physiological characteristics are not consistent with biases in selection, which raises issues regarding identification for immediate and long-term player selection and development.

Playing rugby union matches causes a number of fatigue responses, including reduced lower body neuromuscular function (NMF) (commonly measured by counter movement jump (CMJ))(1). The time course of this response following match play is well established in professional (2) and academy (3) level rugby union players, who take at least 60 hours for NMF to recover. No data exist for high school level rugby union players, but these players are often exposed to multiple game tournaments and festivals (2 games in 3 days, or 3 games in 5 days) within their competition structures. Aim. The aim of this case study is to document the NMF response to playing three rugby union matches within five days. This will provide useful information to practitioners who must manage fatigue and recovery of youth rugby union players who play multiple games within short time periods.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the validity of an isometric mid-thigh pull dynamometer against a criterion measure (i.e., 1,000 Hz force platform) for assessing muscle strength in male youth athletes. Twenty-two male adolescent (age 15.3 ± 0.5 years) rugby league players performed four isometric mid-thigh pull efforts (i.e., two on the dynamometer and two on the force platform) separated by 5 minutes rest in a randomised and counterbalanced order. Mean bias, typical error of estimate (TEE) and Pearson correlation coefficient for peak force (PF) and peak force minus body weight (PFBW) from the force platform were validated against peak force from the dynamometer (DynoPF). When compared to PF and PFBW, mean bias (with 90% Confidence limits) for DynoPF was very large (-32.4 [-34.2 to -30.6] %) and moderate (-10.0 [-12.8 to -7.2] %), respectively. The TEE was moderate for both PF (8.1 [6.3 to 11.2] %) and PFBW (8.9 [7.0 to 12.4]). Correlations between DynoPF and PF (r 0.90 [0.79 to 0.95]) and PFBW (r 0.90 [0.80 to 0.95] were nearly perfect. The isometric mid-thigh pull assessed using a dynamometer underestimated PF and PFBW obtained using a criterion force platform. However, strong correlations between the dynamometer and force platform suggest that a dynamometer provides an appropriate alternative to assess isometric mid-thigh pull strength when a force platform is not available. Therefore, practitioners can use an isometric mid-thigh pull dynamometer to assess strength in the field with youth athletes but should be aware that it underestimates peak force.

PURPOSE: To compare the external loads and external:internal load ratios (EL:IL) during match-play of adolescent collision sport athletes playing at both elite (i.e., academy) and sub-elite (i.e., school) standards. METHODS: Following ethics approval, seventeen elite adolescent male rugby union players (mean ± SD age = 17 ± 1 years) were recruited for this study. Global positioning system (GPS) locomotor (i.e., relative distance [RD; m·min-1], low speed activity [LSA; relative distance <61% maximum velocity [Vmax]], high speed running [HSR; relative distance ≥61% Vmax]), and accelerometer (relative PlayerLoadTM [RPL; AU·min-1], PLSLOW [relative accelerations <2 m·s-1], PLFAST [relative accelerations ≥2 m·s-1]) external loads, and session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) internal load measures were obtained from 22 matches resulting in 86 match files (39 sub-elite and 47 elite match files; 5 ± 2 match files per subject). Perceptual wellbeing measures (i.e., fatigue, sleep quality, upper-body and lower-body soreness, stress, and mood) were also recorded using a 5-point Likert scale on the mornings pre- and post-match. Data were analysed using Cohen’s d effect sizes (d) and magnitude-based inferences. RESULTS: Differences in external loads were unclear between playing standards for RD (d = -0.2) and RPL (d = 0.0). However, subjects’ EL:IL were very likely lower during elite compared to sub-elite matches for both RD:sRPE (d = -1.0) and RPL:sRPE (d = -0.8), due to the very likely greater sRPE during elite matches (d = -1.1). There were unclear differences between sub-elite and elite matches for distribution of GPS and accelerometer variables (i.e., LSA, HSR, PLSLOW, and PLFAST; Table 1). Changes in total perceptual wellbeing were possibly greater following elite compared to sub-elite matches, with unclear differences for changes in sleep quality, lower-body soreness, stress and mood. However, changes in perceptual fatigue and upper-body soreness were both likely greater following elite matches. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescent rugby union players had similar locomotor and accelerometer external loads (i.e., RD, LSA, HSR, RPL, PLSLOW and PLFAST) during both elite and sub-elite standard matches. However, EL:IL was substantially reduced in higher standard matches, indicating a higher perception of effort for a given external load. Greater changes in perceptual fatigue and upper-body soreness following elite match-play may be related to greater magnitude of collision-based activity at higher playing standards. This may be due to the increased body mass and running velocities of opponents at higher playing standards, which may not be fully accounted for using external load measures alone. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: As collision sports require more than just movement and acceleration demands, the inclusion of subjective load measures (i.e., sRPE) or EL:IL may provide a further insight to the true demands of training or match-play than GPS and accelerometer data alone.

Relative Age Effects (RAEs), reflecting observed inequalities in participation and selection as a result of annual age-grouping, are a common problem in most team sports (e.g. soccer; Musch & Grondin, 2001: Developmental Review, 21, 147– 167). In junior representative Rugby League, RAEs increase with each performance level with coaches preferentially selecting taller, heavier and earlier maturing players. However, the effect of playing position on RAEs is not clear with limited data available as to whether maturational differences exist between playing positions in youth sport. Therefore the purpose of this study was to examine the RAE and maturational status amongst playing positions in high performance junior Rugby League players. With institutional ethics approval, 683 regionally (e.g. Yorkshire) selected players (Age mean 14.57, s¼0.83 years) underwent anthropometric testing between 2005 and 2007. Birth date, playing position,height, sitting height and body mass were obtained, and age at Peak Height Velocity (PHV) calculated (Mirwald et al., 2002: Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, 34, 689–694) for each player. Player’s birth dates were recoded by quartile (e.g. Q1¼September–November, Q2¼December–February, etc.) with playing position categorised into one of four subgroups (‘‘Outside-Backs’’, ‘‘Halves and Hookers’’, ‘‘Props’’ and ‘‘Backrowers’’). Chi square analysis identified significant uneven birth date distributions (w2¼236.36, P50.01) for all Regional players and each playing position. Odds ratio (OR) and 95% Confidence Intervals (CI) identified increased risk of selection (Q1 v Q4 OR: 13.39, 95% CI: 4.32–41.53) for the ‘‘Prop’’ position, with 82.9% of ‘‘Props’’ born in the first half of the selection year. One way analysis of variance identified significant (P50.01) differences in maturity, height and body mass between positions with ‘‘Props’’ and ‘‘Backrowers’’ significantly taller, heavier and earlier maturing than the ‘‘Outside-Backs’’ and ‘‘Halves and Hookers’’. Whilst recognising the physical demands of Rugby League, findings demonstrate that player selection at junior representative levels is significantly biased towards the relatively older player, with ‘‘Props’’ and ‘‘Backrowers’’ older, earlier maturing, taller and heavier than ‘‘Outside-Backs’’ and ‘‘Halves and Hookers’’. Thus, younger and later maturing junior players, especially ‘‘Props’’ and ‘‘Backrowers’’, may be disadvantaged in selection to Regional squads due to a lack of physical development, highlighting issues related to differences between selection for current performance and talent identification and development.

This study evaluated the development of anthropometric and fitness characteristics of 3 individual adolescent junior rugby league players and compared their characteristics with a cross-sectional population matched by age and skill level. Cross-sectional anthropometric and fitness assessments were conducted on 1,172 players selected to the Rugby Football League's talent development program (i.e., the Player Performance Pathway) between 2005 and 2008. Three players of differing relative age, maturational status, and playing position were measured and tracked once per year on 3 occasions (Under 13s, 14s, 15s age categories) and compared against the cross-sectional population. Results demonstrated that the later maturing players increased height (player 1 = 9.2%; player 2 = 7.8%) and a number of fitness characteristics (e.g., 60-m speed-player 1 = -14.9%; player 2 = -9.9%) more than the earlier maturing player (player 3-Height = 2.0%, 60-m sprint = -0.7%) over the 2-year period. The variation in the development of anthropometric and fitness characteristics between the 3 players highlights the importance of longitudinally monitoring individual characteristics during adolescence to assess the dynamic changes in growth, maturation, and fitness. Findings showcase the limitations of short-term performance assessments at one-off time points within annual-age categories, instead of advocating individual development and progression tracking without deselection. Coaches should consider using an individual approach, comparing data with population averages, to assist in the prescription of appropriate training and lifestyle interventions to aid the development of junior athletes.

OBJECTIVES: The current study provided a longitudinal evaluation of the anthropometric and fitness characteristics in junior rugby league players across three annual-age categories (i.e., under 13s, 14s and 15s) considering playing position and selection level. DESIGN: Longitudinal design. METHODS: Eighty-one junior rugby league players selected to a talent development programme were tracked over a two year period. Anthropometric (height, sitting height, body mass and sum of four skinfolds) and fitness (lower and upper body power, speed, change of direction speed and maximal aerobic power) characteristics were measured on three occasions (i.e., under 13s, 14s and 15s). Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA; controlling chronological and maturational age) analysed changes across annual-age categories in relation to playing position and selection level. RESULTS: Findings identified significant improvements in anthropometric and fitness characteristics across annual-age categories (p<0.001). MANOVA and MANCOVA analysis identified significant overall effects for playing position (p<0.001) and selection level (p<0.05) throughout the two year period. Interactions between playing position and time were identified for height, vertical jump and estimated V˙O2max (p<0.05). Selection level by time interactions were identified for 20m, 30m and 60m sprint (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates the improvement of anthropometric and fitness characteristics within junior representative rugby league players. Interactive effects for playing position and selection level by time highlight the variation in the development of characteristics that occur during adolescence. Tracking the progression of characteristics longitudinally during adolescence, instead of at one-off time points, may assist selection and/or performance assessments within rugby league and other youth sport contexts.

Relative age effects (RAEs)—observed inequalities in participation and attainment as a result of annual age-grouping policies in youth sport—are a common problem in many sports (e.g., soccer; see Musch & Grondin, 2001). Maturational and selection mechanisms appear Symposia S15 to account for these birth-date discrepancies; however understanding how they manifest and operate—even in physically dependent sports (e.g., Rugby League)—is not clear. The purpose of this study was to examine birth date distribution, physical maturity, height, and body mass in regionally and nationally selected UK junior Rugby League players. Between 2005 and 2007, birth date, height, sitting height, and body mass were collected and age at peak height velocity (PHV) calculated (Mirwald et al., 2002) in 12- to 16-year-old players involved in the UK’s Rugby Football League National (n = 208) and Regional (n = 473) performance pathways. Chi-square analyses identified significant uneven birth date distributions, with 54% of National (χ 2 = 107.2, p < 0.0001) and 47% of Regional players (χ 2 = 140.9, p < 0.0001) born in the first quartile (i.e., Sept to Nov) alone. Related to height, 95% of National and 92% of Regional players were taller than the age-matched 50th percentile of UK reference values. And similarly, 97% of National and 96% of Regional players were above the UK’s age-matched 50th percentile for body mass. National (13.52 ± 0.58) and Regional (13.62 ± 0.6) players’ age at PHV also occurred significantly (p < 0.0001) earlier than UK reference values (Billewicz et al., 1981) of 14.1 ± 1.0 years. Although recognizing the physical demands of Rugby league, findings suggest that talent selection is overwhelmingly biased toward the relatively older, taller, heavier, and earlier maturing youngster within an annual cohort. Thus, younger and later maturing junior rugby league players are disadvantaged in selection to the performance pathway due to a lack of physical development.

This study longitudinally evaluated whether maturation and relative age interact with time during adolescence to differentially affect the development of anthropometric and fitness characteristics in junior rugby league players. Anthropometric and fitness characteristics of 81 junior players selected into the UK Rugby Football League's talent identification and development process were assessed over three consecutive occasions (i.e., under-13s, -14s, -15s). Players were grouped and compared in relation to maturational status (i.e., early, average, late) and relative age quartile (i.e., quartile 1). Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance identified significant (P < 0.001) overall main effects for maturation group, relative age quartile and importantly a maturation group by time interaction. Findings showed that the early-maturing group had the greatest anthropometric characteristics and medicine ball throw across the three occasions. However, the late-maturing group increased their height (early = 5.0 cm, late = 10.3 cm), medicine ball throw and 60-m sprint (early = -0.46 s, late = -0.85 s) the most throughout the 2-year period. Early (de)selection policies currently applied in talent identification and development programs are questionable when performance-related variables are tracked longitudinally. During adolescence, maturation status alongside relative age should be considered and controlled for when assessing athlete potential for future progression.

Athlete development through adolescence can vary greatly because of maturational processes. For example, variation can be observed in anthropometric and fitness measures with later maturing individuals "catching up" their earlier maturing peers at later time points. This study examined a methodological issue concerning how best to assess anthropometric and fitness change (i.e., "across age categories" or "per year") relative to an age and skill-matched population (N = 1,172). Furthermore, it examined changes in anthropometric and fitness characteristics in 3 cases of youth rugby league players (aged 13-15) across a 2-year period. Findings identified the "per year" method as generating less deviated z-scores across anthropometric and fitness measures (e.g., mean change p < 0.001), suggesting less substantial change in case players relative to the population. When applied to additional players, z-score and radar graphs showed developmental variability and longitudinal change. The possibility of a "later maturing player" increasing anthropometric (e.g., height: player 4 = 3.3 cm; player 5 = 13.2 cm; and player 6 = 15.7 cm) and fitness (e.g., 30-m sprint: player 4 = -0.18 s, player 5 = -0.46 s, and player 6 = -0.59 s) characteristics compared with early maturing players was confirmed. Findings affirm the potential for variable and changing trajectories in adolescent athletes. Practical implications advocate a long-term inclusive tracking approach of athletes, the avoidance of (de)selection, and the reduction of a performance emphasis in adolescent stages of sport systems.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the anthropometric and physical characteristics of English regional academy rugby union academy players by age category (under 16, under 18 and under 21s). Data were collected on 67 academy players at the beginning of the pre-season period and comprised anthropometric (height, body mass and sum of 8 skinfolds) and physical (5 m, 10 m, 20 m & 40 m sprint, acceleration, velocity & momentum; agility 505; vertical jump; yo-yo intermittent recovery test level 1; 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test; absolute and relative 3 repetition maximum (3RM) front squat, split squat, bench press, prone row and chin; and isometric mid-thigh pull). One way analysis of variance demonstrated significant increases across the three age categories (p < 0.05) for height (e.g., 16s = 178.8 ± 7.1; 18s = 183.5 ± 7.2; 21s = 186.7 ± 6.61 cm), body mass (e.g., 16s = 79.4 ± 12.8; 18s = 88.3 ± 11.9; 21s = 98.3 ± 10.4kg), countermovement jump height and peak power, sprint momentum, velocity and acceleration; absolute, relative and isometric (e.g., 16s = 2157.9 ± 309.9; 18s = 2561.3 ± 339.4; 21s = 3104.5 ± 354.0 N) strength. Momentum, maximal speed and the ability to maintain acceleration were all discriminating factors between age categories, suggesting that these variables may be more important to monitor rather than sprint times. These findings highlight that anthropometric and physical characteristics develop across age categories and provide comparative data for English academy Rugby Union players.

Holistic development in the context of talent development is a popular yet ambiguous concept. A caring, healthy and ‘all future eventualities’ approach to talent development has been advocated, most notably by the International Olympic Committee (Bergeron et al., 2015). Yet, little is known about how coaches can create talent development environments (TDE) that can foster holistic athlete outcomes. This study aims to develop a working model of holistic development practice. First, holistic development was conceptualised from previous literature as a combination of three athlete outcomes: athletic skills, health and wellbeing and life readiness. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with academy directors (n = 6), coaches (n = 8), and support staff (n = 9) from three team and three individual sport TDEs. Subsequently, a ten-week ethnography was conducted in one professional cricket club TDE, with male athletes (aged 10–18), to understand specific and contextual mechanisms of practice. Data were collected through observations of the environment (120 hours) and informal interviews recorded with descriptive field and reflective notes, and semi-structured interviews with the academy director (n = 1), coaches (n = 3), support staff (n = 2) and focus groups with parents (n = 9) and athletes (n = 16). An abductive approach to thematic analysis was adopted to iteratively compare data against the working model. Preliminary findings support the three-outcome conceptualisation of holistic development and suggest that coaches can adopt the following mechanisms in their environment to support holistic development outcomes: an explicit philosophy of holistic athlete development, stakeholder alignment and support, a climate of care, a long-term development focus, appropriate challenge, and integrated life-skill development.

Talent identification of young soccer players is a significant consideration for elite youth soccer organisations, with decisions on players often being made based on the subjective expert opinion of scouts and coaches. Previous research has suggested that scouts and coaches purportedly consider a multitude of factors before arriving at their decisions. However, to date, limited research exists regarding how coaches evaluate player potential within such organisations and how the consideration of further data may influence such evaluations of a player's future potential. Therefore, the aim of this study was to present ratings of perceived potential in an elite youth soccer academy and explore the relationships between a player's perceived potential, athleticism, and perceived level of current match performance. Using 181 player observations, findings demonstrated that ratings of players’ perceived potential decreased within older age groups and were the lowest in the senior academy age group (U18). Furthermore, a mixed effects ordinal regression model suggested that coaches’ perceptions of a player's future potential demonstrated strong relationships with current match performance and athleticism. Increases in a player's mean match rating significantly increased the odds of them being perceived to have higher potential and increases in athleticism also demonstrated a positive relationship with increased perceptions of potential. The findings have implications for youth soccer organisations, providing insight into the distribution of ratings of potential within an elite youth soccer academy, and demonstrating that further data (match performance and athleticism) is related to, and may influence, coaches’ perceptions of player potential.

There are current global concerns surrounding the lifestyle behaviours and future health and well-being of youth. One concept that has gained traction to address these concerns is Physical Literacy (PL). Organised youth sport is one context that can promote PL, offering multiple benefits coupled with a range of challenges. This leading article aims to provide a balanced overview of the key challenges associated with supporting PL within youth sport and offers solutions to overcome these challenges. The first challenge focuses upon attracting youth (and parents) to sport through increasing recruitment against social constraints (e.g., socioeconomic), popular entertainment (e.g., streaming) and family issues (e.g., scheduling). The second centres on retaining children in sport to maximise participation through the appropriate design, organisation and delivery of training and competition opportunities. The final challenge relates to the talent pathway and how sports can structure (e.g., [de]selection) and deliver (e.g., training intensification) a pathway to ensure that all youth athletes flourish along their PL journey. Our solutions focus on organisations (e.g., national governing bodies, clubs) understanding and considering, 1) PL as an individual’s relationship with movement and physical activity throughout life, 2) children’s rights (e.g., interests, opportunities, expression of views), and 3) sport policies and practices when designing and delivering sport experiences. Whilst these challenges and solutions are wide ranging and complex, our belief is that the adoption of a PL approach by stakeholders when designing, delivering and enacting sport programs can enhance the experiences of youth involved in sport and ultimately support their lifelong PL journey.

Talent identification (TID) and talent development (TD) continue to receive significant investment from team sports organisations, highlighting their importance in attempting to identify potential elite athletes. Accompanying this continual pursuit to unearth future talent is an ever- increasing body of research aiming to provide solutions and strategies to optimise TID and TD processes. Therefore, the aim of this review is to provide a summary and critical synthesis of the methodological approaches applied to TID in team sports and present considerations for future TID research. Specifically, this review highlights three key areas for consideration: (1) the timespan of the research design; (2) the use of monodisciplinary or multidisciplinary variables; and (3) the fidelity of the methodological approaches to the assessment of talent. The review highlights the benefits of longitudinal, multidisciplinary, and ecologically valid research designs for TID within team sports.

Purpose: This study aimed to establish age-specific velocity thresholds for Under (U)14 and U16 elite youth female soccer players. Methods: Data was collected using 10 Hz GPS units during 50 matches from 187 players (U14 n = 89; U16 n = 98). Spectral clustering identified velocity thresholds for high-speed running (HSR), very high-speed running (VHSR), and sprinting (SPR), for 699 half-match observations (U14 n = 369; U16 n = 330). Linear mixed modelling determined youth (U14 and U16) and age-group (U14 or U16) velocity thresholds, and compared distances covered between these and existing senior thresholds. The effect of playing position and playing half on velocity thresholds was also quantified. Results: Youth velocity thresholds of HSR (≥3.00 m·s−1), VHSR (≥4.83 m·s−1), and SPR (≥5.76 m·s−1) were estimated from the model. Age-group and playing position influenced velocity thresholds but playing half did not. Adoption of youth and age-group velocity thresholds resulted in greater distance covered at HSR, VHSR, and SPR (p < 0.001; moderate-large effect size [ES] = 0.86–1.97) compared to senior thresholds. Both age-groups covered similar distances (trivial-small ESs = 0.002–0.23) when adopting youth and age-group velocity thresholds. Conclusion: These youth thresholds provide an alternative to arbitrary velocity thresholds within the literature, and thresholds derived from senior players or other populations, to inform appropriate quantification and interpretation of physical data within this population.

The purpose of this study was to quantify the technical characteristics of U14 and U16 elite youth female soccer match-play and compare position-specific differences between and within these age groups. A total of 449 match observations from 45 matches were undertaken on 189 players representing Regional Talent Centres in The Football Association’s Girls’ England Talent Pathway league. Linear mixed modelling determined position-specific differences for 24 technical and 4 possession-based variables. Results showed similar team possession-based characteristics at both age groups. Interceptions (U14 = 4.6 ± 0.3, U16 = 3.9 ± 0.3) and tackles (U14 = 4.2 ± 0.3, U16 = 3.2 ± 0.3) were the most common defensive actions. Passes were the most common offensive action (U14 = 21.8 ± 1.8, U16 = 25.1 ± 1.9). In possession, U14 central players performed more actions than wide players, whilst actions were more evenly distributed amongst positions at U16, suggesting a variation in playing style between age groups. Technical performances of players were position-dependent, and differences in offensive and defensive variables were observed between age groups across all positions. These findings may assist practitioners in informing specific coaching practice, training programme design or talent identification processes within this population.

This study quantified whole and peak physical characteristics of Under (U)14 and U16 elite youth female soccer, and compared by position and age-group. Data was collected using 10 Hz GPS units from 431 match observations, during 50 matches involving 201 players (U14 n = 93; U16 n = 108) representing Regional Talent Centres in The Football Association’s Girl’s England Talent Pathway League. Whole match data were reported as absolute and relative; total (TD), high-speed running (HSR; ≥3.46 m·s−1), very high-speed running (VHSR; ≥5.29 m·s−1), and sprinting (SPR; ≥6.26 m·s−1) distance, and maximum velocity. Moving average analysis determined peak data (1–10 minute durations). Linear mixed models established position-specific differences. U16s covered greater; absolute distance at all speeds (small-moderate ESs; p < 0.001); relative VHSR and SPR m·min−1 (small-moderate ESs; p < 0.001); peak TD and HSR m·min−1 (small ESs) across several peak-durations, and VHSR m·min−1 (small ESs; p < 0.001) across all peak-durations compared to U14s. Position-specific differences were observed across all positions between and within both age-groups, identifying whole and peak physical characteristics are age- and position-dependent within elite youth female soccer match-play. Findings may facilitate informed coaching practices and training programme design, talent identification and development processes.

To advance our understanding of talent identification and development (TID), it is valuable to retrospectively trace athletes’ long-term career progression (Vaeyens et al., 2008, Journal of Sports Sciences, 38, 703–714). However, research monitoring athletes’ career progression through TID programmes into professional sport is limited, and no study has assessed career outcomes based on a retrospective longitudinally tracked sample. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to retrospectively compare the anthropometric and performance characteristics of junior rugby league players consecutively selected to a TID programme over 3 years (Under 13s, 14s and 15s) in relation to their longterm career progression. With local institutional ethics approval, former junior rugby league players were grouped according to their long-term career progression level (i.e., amateur, n = 12; academy, n = 24; professional, n = 15). All players undertook anthropometric (height, body mass, sum of four skinfolds), maturational (age at peak height velocity) and performance (vertical jump, medicine ball chest throw, 10–60 m sprint, agility 505 and estimated V?O2max via the multistage fitness test) assessments at the Under 13–15 age categories. A repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance identified overall significant effects for time (P < 0.001; ?2 = 1.00), career level (P = 0.005; ?2 = 0.48) and career level × time (P = 0.049; ?2 = 0.73). More specifically, univariate analysis identified differences at the junior age groups between career levels for chronological age (P = 0.002; ?2 = 0.24) and estimated V? O2max (P = 0.006; ?2 = 0.19), with professional players significantly younger than academy players and professional players having higher estimated V? O2max compared to amateur players. Significant interactions for career level × time were apparent for sitting height (P = 0.049; ?2 = 0.11), body mass (P = 0.05; ?2 = 0.09), 10-m sprint (P = 0.023; ?2 = 0.11) and 20-m sprint (P = 0.018; ?2 = 0.12). Greater increases in sitting height and body mass were observed for professional compared to amateur players. For sprint speed, greater improvements in performance were observed in amateur and professional compared to academy players. This study demonstrates, based on group responses, that future professional players selected to a TID programme were younger with a greater V? O2max and increased sitting height and body mass more than amateur players over a 2-year period (Under 13s-–15s). Such findings demonstrate that age and size advantages commonly observed in TID research within adolescent athletes may not be sensitive indicators to correctly identify future career progression. It is recommended that the evaluation of adolescent athletes within TID programmes should incorporate monitoring the development of anthropometric and performance characteristics over time instead of (de)selecting players using one-off assessments.

Background Sport schools are popular environments for simultaneously delivering education and sport to young people. Previous research suggests sport school involvement to have impact (i.e. the positive/negative, intended/unintended and long/short-term outcomes, results and effects) on student athlete’s holistic (i.e. academic, athletic, psychosocial and psychological) development. However, previous research is limited by (1) cross-sectional methods, (2) limited multidimensional assessments, (3) lack of consideration for athlete characteristics (e.g. sex) and (4) failure to evaluate how sport school features affect student-athlete impacts. Objectives The study, using a mixed methods case study approach, aims to (1) longitudinally evaluate the impact of sport school involvement on the holistic development of student athletes, (2) evaluate the impact on holistic development by student-athlete characteristics and (3) explore the features and processes of the sport–school programme that drive/facilitate holistic impacts. Methods A longitudinal mixed methods design was employed across one full academic school year (33 weeks). Six data-collection methods (i.e. online questionnaire, physical fitness testing battery, academic assessment grades, log diaries, field notes/observation and timeline diagram/illustration) were used to assess the academic, athletic, psychosocial and psychological impacts for 72 student athletes from one sport school in the United Kingdom (UK). Results Student athletes developed positive long-term holistic overall impacts (i.e. academically, athletically and personally), including maintaining stable and relatively high levels of sport confidence, academic motivation, general recovery, life skills, resilience and friends, family and free time scores. Despite positive impacts, juggling academic and sport workload posed challenges for student athletes, having the potential to lead to negative holistic impacts (e.g. fatigue, stress and injury). Positive and negative impacts were linked to many potential features and processes of the sport school (e.g. academic and athletic support services versus insufficient training load build-up, communication, coordination, flexibility and planning). Furthermore, when considering student-athlete characteristics, females had lower sport confidence, higher general stress and body image concerns and less general recovery than males and student athletes who played sport outside the school had lower general recovery. Conclusions This mixed method, longitudinal study demonstrated sport school involvement resulted in many positive academic (e.g. good grades), athletic (e.g. fitness development), psychosocial (e.g. enhanced confidence) and psychological (e.g. improved resilience) impacts attributed to the academic and athletic support services provided. However, juggling heavy academic and athletic workloads posed challenges leading to negative impacts including fatigue, pressure, stress and injury. Furthermore, holistic impacts may be sex dependent and further support may be required for female student athletes in sport school environments. Overall, these findings demonstrate the complex nature of combining education and sport commitments and how sport schools should manage, monitor and evaluate the features of their programme to maximise the holistic impacts of sport–school student athletes.

Youth Rugby provides a summary of the latest and most up-to-date research evidence in relation to developing the youth rugby player. The book provides an overview of the latest scientific research for key topics related to the youth rugby player across the codes of rugby (union, league and 7's; mainly league and union in youth players) whilst also summarising the quality of the evidence available and the limitations of this research and highlighting key future research directions. The book covers a range of fundamental scientific topics relating to paediatric exercise science, human physiology, youth athletic development and high-performance sport. Each author is an experienced researcher within their respective discipline related to the youth rugby player. The book includes chapters on: • Long-term athletic development, growth and maturation, talent identification and the physical demands of youth rugby training and match-play. • Physical characteristics and the current evidence behind training methods to promote desired physical qualities. • Fatigue and recovery, the tackle, psychosocial development, nutrition and injury prevalence and prevention. This text is essential reading for all scientists, students and applied researchers wanting to develop world-class, evidence-based programmes for their youth athletes.

This study evaluated the anthropometric, speed and endurance characteristics of English academy soccer players, comparing players who obtained a ‘professional’ contract at 18 years old with those that did not (‘academy’); 443 male academy soccer players from an English professional club undertook anthropometric (height and body mass), speed (10 and 20 m sprint) and endurance (Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test level 2 [Yo-Yo]) assessments between 2005 and 2012. Significant improvements with age were found for speed and endurance at each annual age group up until U18 age category. Significant differences were only observed between ‘professional’ and ‘academy’ players for 10 m (p = 0.003, η2 = 0.01) and 20 m (p = 0.001, η2 = 0.01) speed at U16 and U18 and Yo-Yo performance (p = 0.001, η2 = 0.12) at U18 age category. Practitioners should use speed and endurance assessments for monitoring physical development of players rather than for talent identification purposes.

The health and wellbeing benefits of taking part in organised sport for children and adolescents have been widely reported (Holt et al., 2017) yet participation levels have declined steadily and globally over the last decade (Eime, et al. 2019). However, most of this research has been conducted outside of Europe and although it is safe to assume certain similarities, there is a need for research to explore youth sport participation trends specifically within Europe to inform youth sport participation initiatives. Therefore, the aim of this study, part of Erasmus’ co-funded project ICOACHKIDS+, was to explore organised youth sport participation rates across Europe. Participation data was collected for 5,565,860 children aged 6–18 years (males=4,456,915; females=1,108,945) across 18 sports and 27 countries. Differences in the participation rates between genders and biannual age categories were investigated using a generalised linear mixed effects model. Overall, youth male sport participation rates (∼80%) are significantly higher than females (∼20%). Sports participation peaks for both males and females between 12–14 years. Participation decreases significantly for boys from 14-to-18 years of age in most sports. Girls’ participation significantly decreases between 14–16 years but increases again between 16–18 years in some sports. Findings suggest that strategies to keep more youth engaged in sport, in particular girls, are needed. It is also recommended that sport policy focuses upon overall participation across sports using a longitudinal track approach, and that further research is needed to understand sport attrition from the perspective of the young person, and across a range of demographic variables

Objectives: To quantify, and compare, the whole- half- and peak-match running demands of professional club and international under-16 rugby league match-play. Methods: Four professional Club (n = 30) and two International (n = 23) under-16 matches were analysed using 10-Hz micro-technology units, with players analysed according to positional groups. Absolute (m) and relative (RD; m.min–1) total, high speed (>5 m·s–1; HSR) and sprint (>7 m·s–1) distance were analysed for whole- and half-match alongside maximum velocity (VMAX; m.s–1). Peak running demands were determined via moving averages of RD for 10, 30, and 60- to 600-seconds. Results: International forwards had most likely higher whole match relative sprint and VMAX, and 1st half RD than club level, and had very likely higher peak running demands at 60-, 180- and 600-second durations. For backs, whole game RD was most likely higher and total and sprint distance was likely higher at club level matches. Peak RD was also very likely higher for club backs at 10- and 60-seconds. Conclusions: The running demand differences between club and international level at the under-16 age group are position dependent, with greater running demands at club level match play for backs, but at the international level of forwards.

BACKGROUND: Quantifying the peak match demands within the football codes is useful for the appropriate prescription of external training load. Wearable microtechnology devices can be used to identify the peak match demands, although various methodologies exist at present. OBJECTIVES: This systematic review aimed to identify the methodologies and microtechnology-derived variables used to determine the peak match demands, and to summarise current data on the peak match demands in the football codes. METHODS: A systematic search of electronic databases was performed from earliest record to May 2018; keywords relating to microtechnology, peak match demands and football codes were used. RESULTS: Twenty-seven studies met the eligibility criteria. Six football codes were reported: rugby league (n = 7), rugby union (n = 5), rugby sevens (n = 4), soccer (n = 6), Australian Football (n = 2) and Gaelic Football (n = 3). Three methodologies were identified: moving averages, segmental and 'ball in play'. The moving averages is the most commonly used (63%) and superior method, identifying higher peak demands than other methods. The most commonly used variables were relative distance covered (63%) and external load in specified speed zones (57%). CONCLUSION: This systematic review has identified moving averages to be the most appropriate method for identifying the peak match demands in the football codes. Practitioners and researchers should choose the most relevant duration-specific period and microtechnology-derived variable for their specific needs. The code specific peak match demands revealed can be used for the prescription of conditioning drills and training intensity.

Objective This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to determine differences in body composition between playing standard and age in male rugby union and rugby league athletes. Eligibility criteria The MOOSE (Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology) guidelines for design, implementation, and reporting were followed. Studies were required to be in male rugby union or league and have body composition as the primary or secondary outcome. Data was required to be presented separately for positional groups and body composition presented as whole-body. Data sources PubMed, Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, and CINHAHL via EBSCOhost. Risk of bias The methodological quality of the included studies was evaluated using a modified assessment scale Results 58 studies were included for meta-analysis. Results highlighted significantly higher fat-free mass in senior elite than senior sub-elite or junior elite athletes for all RU and RL forwards. Small and non-significant differences were found in fat mass between rugby union playing standards and age categories. Rugby league senior elite forwards had less fat mass than junior elite forwards. Conclusions Practitioners should prioritise training and nutritional strategies that maximise fat-free mass development, especially in junior elite cohorts.

Despite literature highlighting numerous risks to the healthy psychosocial development of youth elite academy soccer players, little of this research is based on high quality research designs. This study employed a prospective longitudinal cohort design to track psychosocial outcomes of academy involvement within male youth elite soccer players (n=33, U12-U16 age groups) compared to age-matched soccer-active school pupils (n=44) over 12 months. Participants completed questionnaires assessing the most commonly raised psychosocial concerns at four equally spaced data collection periods (T1-T4). Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVAs) indicated that, over the year, both groups reported a healthy and improving stress and recovery balance, as well as positive and stable needs satisfaction and physical, psychological and social well-being. Academy players reported stable positive school-related quality of life, whereas school pupils reported increases from T3 to T4. Academy players reported consistent significantly higher total athletic identity and exclusivity of identity. Findings suggest that many concerns around negative psychosocial impacts of soccer academy involvement did not materialise in this context. However, heightened athletic identities remained a concern. Keywords: Elite youth soccer, Academy impact, Athlete development

Background Rugby union match demands are complex, requiring the development of multiple physical qualities concurrently. Quantifying the physical qualities of age grade rugby union players is vital for practitioners to support athlete preparation and long-term development. Aim This systematic review aimed to identify the methods used to quantify the physical qualities of male age grade (≤ Under-20) rugby union players, present the normative values for physical qualities, and compare physical qualities between age grades and positions. Methods Electronic databases were systematically reviewed from the earliest record to November 2019 using key words relating to sex, age, sport and physical testing. Results Forty-two studies evaluated the physical qualities of age grade rugby union players. Seventy-five tests were used to quantify body composition, muscular strength, muscular power, linear speed, change of direction ability, aerobic capacity and anaerobic endurance. Thirty-one studies met the eligibility criteria to present the physical qualities. Physical qualities differentiate between age groups below Under-16, while differences in older age groups (Under-16 to Under-20) are not clear. Positional differences are present with forwards possessing greater height, body mass, body fat percentage and strength while backs are faster and have greater aerobic capacities. Conclusions A wide variety of tests are used to assess physical qualities limiting between study comparisons. Although differences in older age grades are unclear, older age groups (Under-19-20) generally performed better in physical tests. Positional differences are associated with match demands where forwards are exposed to less running but a greater number of collisions. Practitioners can use the results from this review to evaluate the physical qualities of age grade rugby union players to enhance training prescription, goal setting and player development. Future research should consider the use of national standardised testing batteries due to the inconsistency in testing methods and small samples limiting the reporting of positional differences.

This study aimed to quantify the duration-specific peak average running speeds of Academy-level rugby league match play, and compare between playing positions. Global positioning system data were collected from 149 players competing across 9 teams during 21 professional Academy (under-19) matches. Players were split into 6 positions: hookers (n = 40), fullbacks (n = 24), halves (n = 47), outside backs (n = 104), middles (n = 118), and backrow forwards (n = 104). Data were extracted and the 10-Hz raw velocity files exported to determine the peak average running speeds, via moving averages of speed (m·min−1), for 10- and 30-second, and 1- to 5- and 10-minute durations. The data were log transformed and analyzed using linear mixed-effect models followed by magnitude-based inferences, to determine differences between positions. Differences in the peak average running speeds are present between positions, indicating the need for position-specific prescription of velocity-based training. Fullbacks perform possibly to most likely greater average running speeds than all other positions, at each duration, except at 10 seconds vs. outside backs. Other differences are duration dependent. For 10 seconds, the average running speed is most likely greater for outside backs vs. the hookers, middles, and backrow forwards, but likely to most likely lower for 10 minutes. Hookers have possibly trivial or lower average speed for 10 seconds vs. middles and backrow forwards, but very likely greater average running speed for 10 minutes. The identified peak average running speeds of Academy-level match play seem similar to previously reported values of senior professional level.

INTRODUCTION: For the optimal development of youth rugby league players’, knowledge of the match demands across the different levels is required. The peak demands of game play can be termed the ‘worst case scenario’ (WCS). Quantification of the WCS aids in the prescription of appropriate training drills. This study aimed to quantify, and compare, the absolute and WCS running demands of rugby league match-play between professional club and international youth levels.

The most frequently occurring contact events in rugby union are the tackle and ruck. The ability repeatedly to engage and win the tackle and ruck has been associated with team success. To win the tackle and ruck, players have to perform specific techniques. These techniques have not been studied at the highest level of rugby union. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify technical determinants of tackle and ruck performance at the highest level of rugby union. A total of 4479 tackle and 2914 ruck events were coded for the Six Nations and Championship competitions. Relative risk ratio (RR), the ratio of the probability of an outcome occurring when a characteristic was observed (versus the non-observed characteristic), was determined using multinomial logistic regression. Executing front-on tackles reduced the likelihood of offloads and tackle breaks in both competitions (Six Nations RR 3.0 Behind tackle, 95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 1.9-4.6, effect size [ES] = large, P < 0.001); Championship RR 2.9 Jersey tackle, 95% CI: 1.3-6.4, ES = moderate, P = 0.01). Fending during contact increased the chances of offloading and breaking the tackle in both competitions (Six Nations RR 4.5 Strong, 95% CI: 2.2-9.2, ES = large, P = P < 0.001; Championship RR 5.1 Moderate, 95% CI: 3.5-7.4, ES = large, P < 0.001). For the ruck, actively placing the ball increased the probability of maintaining possession (Six Nations RR 2.2, 95% CI: 1.1-4.3, ES = moderate, P = 0.03); Championship RR 4.0, 95% CI: 1.3-11.8, ES = large, P = 0.01). The techniques identified in this study should be incorporated and emphasised during training to prepare players for competition. Furthermore, these techniques need to be added to coaching manuals for the tackle and ruck.

Modern day high-performance sport is arguably more competitive than ever before. National teams, clubs and sport programmes therefore focus on identifying talented athletes and developing them into the sporting superstars of tomorrow through structured talent systems and tailored talent development environments (TDEs). Recently, however, concerns have been raised over the short and long-term physical, psychological and social impact of young athletes participating in the talent development process.

The profiling (including measurement, analysis and evaluation) of the physical qualities of youth rugby players is vital for practitioners to support athlete preparation and long-term development. This chapter summarises the relevant research detailing how physical qualities are measured within youth rugby players. This includes a summary of methods that assess anthropometry and body composition, strength, power, speed, agility and change of direction, aerobic and anaerobic capacity, and movement skills. The second part of the chapter presents the practical application of a national standardised fitness assessment for 14–19-year-old rugby league players. This section highlights how the national standardised fitness assessment was (1) designed, (2) conducted, and (3) analysed, reported and evaluated using the ProPQ (Profiling Physical Qualities) Tool. The ProPQ Tool provides an interactive data analysis tool that can be used by academy managers, coaches and sport science staff for enhancing the physical development of rugby players. The chapter concludes with a range of recommendations and implications for practice for profiling the physical qualities of youth rugby players.

Talent development environments (TDEs) are commonplace in sporting talent systems. National teams, clubs and sport programmes often fund and organise TDEs with the aim of developing future high-performance athletes. Although pursuing an elite sporting career can be an enriching experience, it is an intensive and long-term endeavour. It inherently carries a high level of physical, psychological and social challenge which needs to be managed appropriately to minimise detrimental impacts to athletes and maximise the potential benefits of TDE involvement. Consequently, calls have been made for holistic development approaches in talent development. This article presents the why, what and how of establishing holistic TDEs including six key principles of good practice.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the validity of global positioning system (GPS) and micro-electrical-mechanical-system (MEMS) data generated in real-time via a dedicated receiver. Post-session data acted as criterion as it is used to plan the volume and intensity of future training and is downloaded directly from the device. 25 professional rugby league players completed two training sessions wearing a MEMS device (Catapult S5, firmware version: 2.27). During sessions, real-time data was collected via the manufacturer receiver and dedicated software (Openfield v1.14) which was positioned outdoors at the same location for every session. GPS variables included total-, low- (0 to 3 m∙s-1), moderate- (3.1 to 5 m∙s-1), high- (5.1 to 7 m∙s-1) and very-high-speed (> 7.1 m∙s-1) distances. MEMS data included total session PlayerLoad™. When compared to post-session data, mean bias for total-, low-, moderate-, high- and very-high-speed distances were all trivial, with the typical error of the estimate (TEE) small, small, trivial, trivial and small respectively. Pearson correlation coefficients for total-, low-, moderate-, high- and very-high-speed distances were nearly perfect, nearly perfect, perfect, perfect and nearly perfect respectively. For PlayerLoad™, mean bias was trivial whilst TEE was moderate and correlation nearly perfect. Practitioners should be confident that when interpreting real-time speed-derived metrics, the data generated in real-time is comparable to that downloaded directly from the device post-session. However, practitioners should refrain from interpreting accelerometer derived data (i.e. PlayerLoad™) or acknowledge the moderate error associated with this real-time measure.

The aim of the present study was to investigate (a) the differences in the movement skills and physical qualities between academy and senior rugby league players, and (b) the relationships between movement skills and physical qualities. Fifty-five male rugby league players (Senior, n=18; Under 19 n=23; Under 16, n=14) undertook a physical testing battery including anthropometric (stature & body mass), strength (isometric mid-thigh pull; IMTP) and power (countermovement jump; CMJ) qualities, alongside the athletic ability assessment (AAA; comprised of overhead squat, double lunge, single-leg Romanian deadlift, press-up and pull-up exercises). Univariate analysis of variance demonstrated significant (p<0.001) differences in body mass, IMTP peak force, CMJ mean power, and AAA movement skills between groups. The greatest observed differences for total movement skills, peak force and mean power were identified between Under 16 and 19 academy age groups. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients demonstrated a significant moderate (r=0.31) relationship between peak force and total movement skill. Furthermore, trivial (r=0.01) and small (r=0.13; r=0.22) relationships were observed between power qualities and total movement skill. These findings highlight that both movement skills and physical qualities differentiate between academy age groups, and provides comparative data for English senior and academy rugby league players.

Head acceleration events (HAEs) are acceleration responses of the head following external short-duration collisions. The potential risk of brain injury from a single high-magnitude HAE or repeated occurrences makes them a significant concern in sport. Instrumented mouthguards (iMGs) can approximate HAEs. The distinction between sensor acceleration events, the iMG datum for approximating HAEs and HAEs themselves, which have been defined as the in vivo event, is made to highlight limitations of approximating HAEs using iMGs. This article explores the technical limitations of iMGs that constrain the approximation of HAEs and discusses important conceptual considerations for stakeholders interpreting iMG data. The approximation of HAEs by sensor acceleration events is constrained by false positives and false negatives. False positives occur when a sensor acceleration event is recorded despite no (in vivo) HAE occurring, while false negatives occur when a sensor acceleration event is not recorded after an (in vivo) HAE has occurred. Various mechanisms contribute to false positives and false negatives. Video verification and post-processing algorithms offer effective means for eradicating most false positives, but mitigation for false negatives is less comprehensive. Consequently, current iMG research is likely to underestimate HAE exposures, especially at lower magnitudes. Future research should aim to mitigate false negatives, while current iMG datasets should be interpreted with consideration for false negatives when inferring athlete HAE exposure.

Objectives: Identify tackle characteristics associated with concussions in male professional rugby league. Design: Case-control study. Methods: Tackles resulting in 196 clinically diagnosed concussions and 6592 non-concussive tackles were analysed, from the men's rugby league Super League between 2018 and 2022. Eleven tackle characteristics were coded for each tackle, and Firth penalised logistic regression models were employed to identify influential variables through forward stepwise selection. Three multivariate models were produced; all (i.e., ball-carrier and tackler), tackler, and ball-carrier concussions. Results: Of the 196 concussions, 70 % occurred to the tackler and 30 % to the ball-carrier. Initial impact location on the ball-carrier was identified as a predictor in all models, specifically the shorts, upper- and lower-leg (OR 9.1–12.3, compared to shoulder) for tacklers and head/neck (OR 66.1, compared to shoulder) for ball-carriers. Tackler head placement in front of the ball-carrier (OR 8.5, compared to away from the body) and a ball-carrier leading arm in any position (OR 4.8–22.1, compared to no leading arm) provided the greatest odds of a tackler concussion. For player's body position the greatest risk of concussion for all players was observed when both players were falling/diving (OR 8.8, compared to both players upright). One (OR 4.9, compared to two) and four (OR 3.7, compared to two) defender tackles provide the greatest odds for all concussions. Conclusions: Concussion prevention strategies should aim to reduce head impacts by deterring initial contact with the ball-carrier's head/neck. Tackle technique should prioritise making initial impact with the torso and avoid the head being in front of the ball-carrier and any leading arms.